Nonaccidental Injury in Pediatric Patients: Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment

Table of Contents

 

We know that approximately one-third of the children who died from nonaccidental injuries had been previously evaluated for injuries that healthcare providers did not recognize as abuse. This issue outlines evidence-based strategies to help emergency clinicians recognize signs of abuse while dealing sensitively with caregivers. In this issue, you will learn to:

Recognize sentinel injuries

Identify injury patterns that are specific for abuse

Describe the range of findings present in abusive head trauma

Take a patient history that will reveal key indicators of abuse

Order diagnostic studies that reveal abuse, while minimizing radiation

1. Abstract
2. Case Presentations
3. Introduction
4. Critical Appraisal of the Literature
5. Epidemiology
6. Etiology
7. Differential Diagnosis
   1. Bruises and Burns
   2. Fractures
   3. Intracranial Hemorrhage
   4. Retinal Hemorrhage
8. Prehospital Care
9. Emergency Department Evaluation
   1. History
   2. Physical Examination
      1. Sentinel Injuries
         • Bruises
         • Oral Injuries
      2. Burns
      3. Abusive Head Trauma
         • Clinical Prediction Rules for Abusive Head Trauma
         • Hpoxic-Ischemic Injury
         • Retinal Hemorrhages
         • Consultation With an Ophthalmologist
      4. Abusive Thoracoabdominal Injury
      5. Fractures
10. Diagnosis and Management
    1. Cutaneous Injury
    2. Abusive Head Trauma
    3. Thoracoabdominal Injury
       1. Laboratory Testing
       2. Imaging
    4. Skeletal Injury
11. Special Circumstances
    1. Children With Special Needs
    2. Cultural, Complementary, and Alternative Medical Considerations
    3. Intimate Partner Violence
12. Controversies and Cutting Edge
    1. Subdural Hematoma and Retinal Hemorrhage in Relation to Hypoxic-Ischemic Events
    2. Retinal Hemorrhage and Seizures
    3. Fractures and Rickets
    4. Documentation
13. Disposition
14. Summary
15. Risk Management Pitfalls in the Management of Cases of Suspected Nonaccidental Injury
16. Cost-Effective Strategies
17. Clinical Pathway For Evaluation of Nonaccidental Injuries in Children
18. Tables and Figures
    1. Table 1. Differential Diagnosis of Nonaccidental Injuries
    2. Table 2. Standard Views in a Radiographic Skeletal Survey to Evaluate for Occult Skeletal Trauma
    3. Figure 1. Sentinel Injuries
    4. Figure 2. Example of an Ear Bruise Included in the TEN-4 Decision Rule
    5. Figure 3. Distinct Clustered-Patterned Abusive Bruising
    6. Figure 4. Abusive Versus Accidental Scald Burns
    7. Figure 5. Cigarette Burn on a School-aged Child
    8. Figure 6. Multiple Preretinal and Intraretinal Hemorrhages Extending to the Periphery
    9. Figure 7. Intracranial Hemorrhages on Computed Tomography
    10. Figure 8. Cranial Computed Tomography With 3-Dimensional Reconstruction
    11. Figure 9. Rib Fractures on Chest Radiography
19. References

Abstract

Emergency clinicians are likely to encounter physical abuse in children, and they must be prepared to recognize its many manifestations and take swift action. Pediatric nonaccidental injury causes considerable morbidity and mortality that can often be prevented by early recognition. Nonaccidental injuries present with a wide array of symptoms that may appear to be medically inconsequential (such as bruising in a premobile infant), but are actually sentinel injuries indicative of child abuse. This issue provides guidance regarding factors that contribute to abuse in children, key findings on history and physical examination that should trigger an evaluation for physical abuse, and laboratory and radiologic tests to perform when child abuse is suspected.

Case Presentations

A mother brings her 3-month-old boy to the ED for vomiting and irritability. She says that the boy's father told her the baby wouldn’t stop crying and had vomited several times. The mother states the baby had been fine when she left for work that morning. The patient’s medical history is significant for colic and an episode of blood from his mouth 1 month ago. On physical examination, the baby is irritable, his anterior fontanelle is full, and his pupils react bilaterally. The patient continues to vomit several times in the ED and remains irritable and afebrile. You are worried that the vomiting and irritability are signs of abusive head trauma and you consider how to approach brain imaging in this patient. You then wonder whether you should order laboratory tests and assess for other occult injuries with a skeletal survey. Would an ophthalmological examination be indicated in this patient? Finally, you consider how and when to approach the family about a child protective services referral.

A 2-month-old boy was transported to the ED by EMS. A neighbor had called 911 because of concerns of domestic violence between the parents. The mother denies domestic violence and says that the baby seems to be having some difficulty breathing. On physical examination, the patient is fussy but consolable. He is afebrile, but is breathing rapidly, with a respiratory rate of 70 breaths/min. There are bruises on his anterior and posterior torso and crepitus of his chest wall. When asked how the patient may have sustained the bruises, the mother states the baby may have “rolled” and hit the edge of the crib. You are concerned about physical abuse as a cause of your patient’s presentation. You wonder if domestic violence between caregivers is a risk factor for physical abuse in children. Should the developmentally implausible history provided by the mother make you more worried about abuse? You start to consider which laboratory, imaging tests, and consultations you should pursue to evaluate both for possible physical abuse and to exclude other diagnoses, such as a bleeding disorder.

A 3-year-old boy was sent to the ED from daycare after he refused to sit down due to pain in his buttock region. When his daycare teacher removed his pull-up diaper, she noted he had symmetric blistering in a circular region around his buttocks, with some central clearing. When asked how this happened, the boy said the bath water was too hot the day before. His father added that maybe a sibling pushed him into the water. Given the symmetry and donut-shaped appearance of this burn, you wonder if you should consider an intentional submersion burn in a young child of toilet-training age as a cause of this patient’s presentation? As you think about the differential diagnosis, you start considering which consultants could further assist you with this diagnosis. Finally, you start thinking about whether you should involve child protective services.

Introduction

In 2015, about 683,000 infants and children in the United States were determined by Child Protective Services (CPS) to have been maltreated and, of these, 17.2% were physically abused.¹ Based on self-reports by victims, the incidence of maltreatment, including episodes not reported to CPS, is likely much higher.^1-5 Most maltreatment-related fatalities occur in children aged < 3 years.¹ The majority of children with injuries concerning for abuse are seen in emergency departments (EDs).^6-9 Notably, approximately 30% of children who died from abuse were previously evaluated by healthcare providers, often in the ED setting, for injuries that were not recognized to be the result of abuse.^10-13

Even when there is uncertainty, the diagnosis of nonaccidental injury must be considered and evaluation initiated, as improvements in early detection and reporting of maltreatment could reduce morbidity and mortality. However, the presentations of nonaccidental injuries are variable and sometimes medically inconsequential and may thus be missed. This issue of Pediatric Emergency Medicine Practice provides a comprehensive, evidence-based review of the historical and physical examination findings that are concerning for abuse, injury patterns that are highly specific for abuse, and the use of screening tests and other available resources for diagnostic evaluation and management of cases when abuse is suspected.

Critical Appraisal of the Literature

A literature search was performed using the PubMed and Ovid MEDLINE^® databases as well as the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews from their start until 2016. The following keywords were searched: child abuse, child maltreatment, nonaccidental trauma, and inflicted injury in various combinations with the key words epidemiology, diagnosis, evaluation, management, prognosis, emergency department, abusive head trauma, burns, bruising, intraoral injury, sentinel injury, abdominal injury, thoracic injury, eye injury, fractures, skeletal injuries, siblings, and domestic violence. References in the bibliographies of relevant review articles were also examined. Together, over 200 articles and websites were reviewed.

Literature on nonaccidental injuries consists largely of descriptive case series, retrospective case-controlled studies, and cohort studies. Additional limitations include a lack of prospective and epidemiological data, comparative studies that identify features between intentional and unintentional injuries, and data on abusive findings in children with disabilities.

The definition of the term child abuse varies across studies, and authors define abuse across a spectrum that falls within the categories of confirmed abuse, suspected abuse, indeterminate cases, and excluded abuse. Even within each category, definitions vary. Variability also exists in the inclusion criteria by injury severity, as many studies include only injuries that require hospital admission, intensive care unit admission, trauma registry inclusion, or injuries that cause death. Some studies include patients only when there is a consultation to a child abuse specialist. Thus, though researchers have performed systematic reviews on many topics associated with physical abuse (oral injuries, bruising, burns, abusive head trauma [AHT], fractures, retinal findings, and visceral findings), they struggle to draw conclusions on true associations between various factors and physical abuse.

Risk Management Pitfalls in the Management of Cases of Suspected Nonaccidental Injury

1. “I thought bruising on the lower extremities could be a normal finding in a 3-month-old infant.”

Bruising is the most common detectable injury in maltreatment; it is missed as a sentinel injury in about one-third of fatal or near-fatal abusive injuries. Though bruising to anterior lower legs in mobile children can commonly occur from accidental injuries, bruising is uncommon in children who are premobile (in general, children aged < 6 months).

2. “I thought I had to wait until I was certain that some form of abuse had occurred before I reported to CPS.”

All medical providers are considered mandated reporters and should report any concern for the possibility of abuse to CPS as soon as suspicion arises. A local child protection specialty physician can also be contacted to discuss concerns. Reporting to CPS facilitates the investigation and the mobilization of resources to help the child, and does not automatically trigger removal of the child from the home.

3. “I did not consider AHT on my differential because the infant had a seizure and vomiting and had no external signs of injury.”

Recognizing AHT can be difficult, as it can present with subtle signs and symptoms. However, shaking without impact may result in no external signs of injury. AHT is important to consider in the differential diagnosis, especially when the history does not point to a clear cause or does not explain the presentation.

4. “This infant has mild vitamin D deficiency; therefore, this must be the cause of his fractures.”

Insufficiency/deficiency of vitamin D levels in the blood does not constitute rickets. Fractures in patients with rickets resemble structural insufficiency fractures and are present in the face of florid rachitic changes in the bones. Fractures associated with rickets are also consistent with the injury mechanism. They tend to be seen in mobile infants aged > 6 months. They are not associated with classic metaphyseal fractures, posterior medial rib fractures, vertebral fractures, or skull fractures.

5. “A 2-month-old child could have bleeding from his mouth from hitting himself with a toy.”

Always consider the developmental stage of the child and whether the injury makes sense with that developmental stage. Premobile infants presenting with inadequately explained oral injuries must be evaluated for abuse.

6. “I got the chest x-ray to look for aspiration pneumonia. I was not looking for rib fractures.”

Always assess radiographic studies in a systematic manner. For example, look at image quality, soft tissue and bones, the airway and mediastinum, lungs, heart, diaphragm, etc. Rib fractures are not typically visible until there is callus formation, which occurs approximately 7 to 10 days postinjury. Among children with abusive fractures, approximately 20% were missed initially, including a large fraction that were present but missed on initial imaging studies.¹⁸

7. “This family is so nice and the parents are very wealthy, they couldn’t have abused their baby.”

Abuse can happen to children of all social and ethnic demographics. Abuse cases are more often missed on first presentation to the ED due to provider biases and the misconception that abuse only happens in certain populations.

8. “The bruising pattern on this boy makes me concerned for child abuse. I will make him an appointment with his pediatrician and she can decide if there needs to be a referral to CPS.”

Emergency clinicians are considered mandatory reporters of abuse. It is inappropriate to wait for a follow-up appointment with a pediatrician to make a CPS referral. It might not be safe for this child to go home with the family and wait for the appointment. The patient could be lost to follow-up and may be further harmed.

9. “This child probably has multiple fractures because she was born prematurely.”

Children with chronic medical problems are a uniquely at-risk population and have higher rates of abuse than the general pediatric population. Children with chronic illness or disability often place higher emotional, physical, financial, and social demands on their caregivers. Caregivers with limited support and poor coping skills may feel overwhelmed by the responsibility of caring for a child with special needs.

10. “The patient has loop-shaped bruises on his torso, but his platelets and coagulation studies are normal. I will arrange for follow-up with a hematologist.”

Coagulopathies may cause petechiae and ecchymoses, but bruises that are patterned, multiple, or occurring in clusters may occur from physical abuse.

Tables and Figures

References

Evidence-based medicine requires a critical appraisal of the literature based upon study methodology and number of subjects. Not all references are equally robust. The findings of a large, prospective, randomized, and blinded trial should carry more weight than a case report.

To help the reader judge the strength of each reference, pertinent information about the study, such as the type of study and the number of patients in the study is included in bold type following the references, where available. The most informative references cited in this paper, as determined by the authors, are noted by an asterisk (*) next to the number of the reference.

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6. * King AJ, Farst KJ, Jaeger MW, et al. Maltreatment-related emergency department visits among children 0 to 3 years old in the United States. Child Maltreat. 2015;20(3):151-161. (Retrospective cohort; 10,095 abused children)
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19. Trokel M, Waddimba A, Griffith J, et al. Variation in the diagnosis of child abuse in severely injured infants. Pediatrics. 2006;117(3):722-728. (Retrospective cohort; 2253 cases)
20. Ziegler DS, Sammut J, Piper AC. Assessment and follow-up of suspected child abuse in preschool children with fractures seen in a general hospital emergency department. J Paediatr Child Health. 2005;41(5-6):251-255. (Retrospective cohort; 98 cases)
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24. * Barr RG, Trent RB, Cross J. Age-related incidence curve of hospitalized shaken baby syndrome cases: convergent evidence for crying as a trigger to shaking. Child Abuse Negl. 2006;30(1):7-16. (Retrospective case review; 273 patients)
25. Reijneveld SA, van der Wal MF, Brugman E, et al. Infant crying and abuse. Lancet. 2004;364(9442):1340-1342. (Prospective cohort; 3259 patients)
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35. Stiffman MN, Schnitzer PG, Adam P, et al. Household composition and risk of fatal child maltreatment. Pediatrics. 2002;109(4):615-621. (Population-based case-control study; 471 patients)
36. Knapp JF, Dowd MD. Family violence: implications for the pediatrician. Pediatr Rev. 1998;19(9):316-321. (Review article)
37. Wood JN, Hall M, Schilling S, et al. Disparities in the evaluation and diagnosis of abuse among infants with traumatic brain injury. Pediatrics. 2010;126(3):408-414. (Retrospective cohort; 3063 patients)
38. Schwartz KA, Metz J, Feldman K, et al. Cutaneous findings mistaken for physical abuse: present but not pervasive. Pediatr Dermatol. 2014;31(2):146-155. (Prospective cohort; 137 patients)
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41. Leventhal JM, Griffin D, Duncan KO, et al. Laxative-induced dermatitis of the buttocks incorrectly suspected to be abusive burns. Pediatrics. 2001;107(1):178-179. (Retrospective case reports; 4 patients)
42. Stewart GM, Rosenberg NM. Conditions mistaken for child abuse: part II. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1996;12(3):217-221. (Review article)
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45. Pepin MG, Byers PH. What every clinical geneticist should know about testing for osteogenesis imperfecta in suspected child abuse cases. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2015;169(4):307-313. (Review article)
46. Chapman T, Sugar N, Done S, et al. Fractures in infants and toddlers with rickets. Pediatr Radiol. 2010;40(7):1184-1189. (Retrospective cohort; 45 children)
47. Shore RM, Chesney RW. Rickets: part I. Pediatr Radiol. 2013;43(2):140-151. (Review article)
48. Shore RM, Chesney RW. Rickets: part II. Pediatr Radiol. 2013;43(2):152-172. (Review article)
49. Perez-Rossello JM, McDonald AG, Rosenberg AE, et al. Absence of rickets in infants with fatal abusive head trauma and classic metaphyseal lesions. Radiology. 2015;275(3):810-821. (Retrospective cohort; 46 patients)
50. Al-Habdan I. Birth-related fractures of long bones. Indian J Pediatr. 2003;70(12):959-960. (Retrospective cohort; 21 fractures)
51. Walters MM, Forbes PW, Buonomo C, et al. Healing patterns of clavicular birth injuries as a guide to fracture dating in cases of possible infant abuse. Pediatr Radiol. 2014;44(10):1224-1229. (Retrospective cohort; 131 radiographs)
52. McKeag H, Christian CW, Rubin D, et al. Subdural hemorrhage in pediatric patients with enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2013;11(4):438-444. (Retrospective cohort; 177 patients)
53. Vester ME, Bilo RA, Karst WA, et al. Subdural hematomas: glutaric aciduria type 1 or abusive head trauma? A systematic review. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2015;11(3):405-415. (Review article)
54. Levin AV. Retinal hemorrhages: advances in understanding. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2009;56(2):333-344. (Review article)
55. Pham H, Enzenauer RW, Elder JE, et al. Retinal hemorrhage after cardiopulmonary resuscitation with chest compressions. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2013;34(2):122-124. (Prospective cohort; 22 patients)
56. Franke I, Pingen A, Schiffmann H, et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)-related posterior rib fractures in neonates and infants following recommended changes in CPR techniques. Child Abuse Negl. 2014;38(7):1267-1274. (Retrospective cohort; 80 patients)
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59. Asnes AG, Leventhal JM. Managing child abuse: general principles. Pediatr Rev. 2010;31(2):47-55. (Review article)
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61. Laskey AL, Holsti M, Runyan DK, et al. Occult head trauma in young suspected victims of physical abuse. J Pediatr. 2004;144(6):719-722. (Retrospective cohort; 51 patients)
62. Emerson MV, Jakobs E, Green WR. Ocular autopsy and histopathologic features of child abuse. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(7):1384-1394. (Retrospective case series; 118 patients)
63. Levin AV, Christian CW. The eye examination in the evaluation of child abuse. Pediatrics. 2010;126(2):376-380. (Review article)
64. * Lindberg D, Makoroff K, Harper N, et al. Utility of hepatic transaminases to recognize abuse in children. Pediatrics. 2009;124(2):509-516. (Prospective observational cohort; 1272 patients)
65. Lindberg DM, Berger RP, Lane WG. PECARN abdominal injury rule should exclude potentially abused children. Ann Emerg Med. 2013;62(3):276-277. (Letter to the editor)
66. Baxter AL, Lindberg DM, Burke BL, et al. Hepatic enzyme decline after pediatric blunt trauma: a tool for timing child abuse? Child Abuse Negl. 2008;32(9):838-845. (Retrospective cohort; 176 patients)
67. Christian CW. The evaluation of suspected child physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2015;135(5):e1337-e1354. (Review article)
68. * Sugar NF, Taylor JA, Feldman KW. Bruises in infants and toddlers: those who don’t cruise rarely bruise. Puget Sound Pediatric Research Network. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999;153(4):399-403. (Prospective cohort study; 973 patients)
69. Carpenter RF. The prevalence and distribution of bruising in babies. Arch Dis Child. 1999;80(4):363-366. (Prospective cohort study; 177 patients)
70. Pierce MC, Magana JN, Kaczor K, et al. The prevalence of bruising among infants in pediatric emergency departments. Ann Emerg Med. 2016;67(1):1-8. (Prospective observational cohort; 2488 patients)
71. Labbe J, Caouette G. Recent skin injuries in normal children. Pediatrics. 2001;108(2):271-276. (Prospective cohort study; 1467 subjects)
72. * Sheets LK, Leach ME, Koszewski IJ, et al. Sentinel injuries in infants evaluated for child physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2013;131(4):701-707. (Retrospective case control study; 300 patients)
73. Petska HW, Sheets LK, Knox BL. Facial bruising as a precursor to abusive head trauma. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2013;52(1):86-88. (Review article)
74. Pierce MC, Smith S, Kaczor K. Bruising in infants: those with a bruise may be abused. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2009;25(12):845-847. (Case series; 3 cases)
75. Thackeray JD. Frena tears and abusive head injury: a cautionary tale. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2007;23(10):735-737. (Case series; 3 cases)
76. Naidoo S. A profile of the oro-facial injuries in child physical abuse at a children’s hospital. Child Abuse Negl. 2000;24(4):521-534. (Retrospective case review; 300 cases)
77. Harper NS, Feldman KW, Sugar NF, et al. Additional injuries in young infants with concern for abuse and apparently isolated bruises. J Pediatr. 2014;165(2):383-388.e1. (Prospective observational cohort; 2890 patients)
78. Maguire S, Mann MK, Sibert J, et al. Are there patterns of bruising in childhood which are diagnostic or suggestive of abuse? A systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90(2):182-186. (Systematic review; 23 studies; 7 nonabusive, 14 abusive, 2 both)
79. * Pierce MC, Kaczor K, Aldridge S, et al. Bruising characteristics discriminating physical child abuse from accidental trauma. Pediatrics. 2010;125(1):67-74. (Prospective case control study; 95 subjects)
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