Evidence-based medicine requires a critical appraisal of the literature based upon study methodology and number of subjects. Not all references are equally robust. The findings of a large, prospective, randomized, and blinded trial should carry more weight than a case report.

To help the reader judge the strength of each reference, pertinent information about the study, such as the type of study and the number of patients in the study will be included in bold type following the reference, where available.

1. Hanevold CD. Concepts guiding therapy for hypertension in children. Expert Rev of Cardiovasc Ther. 2009;7(6):647-657. (Non-systematic review)
2. Yared A. Pediatric hypertension: Clinical aspects of hypertension in children. J Med Liban. 2010;58(3):127-131. (Non-systematic review)
3. Flynn JT. Hypertension in the young: Epidemiology, sequelae, and therapy. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009;24:370-375. (Editorial review)
4. Muntner P, He J, Cutler JA, et al. Trends in blood pressure among children and adolescents. JAMA. 2004; 291(17):2107-2113. (Two serially conducted cross-sectional studies)
5. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents. The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2004;114(2):555-576. (Systematic review)
6. Sorof JM, Alexandrov AV, Cardwell G, et al. Carotid artery intimal-medial thickness and left ventricular hypertrophy in children with elevated blood pressure. Pediatrics. 2003;111:61. (Prospective, descriptive study; 32 patients)
7. Flynn JT, Falkner BE. Obesity Hypertension in Adolescents: Epidemiology, Evaluation, and Management. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension. 2011;13(5):323-331. (Non-systematic review)
8. Croix B, Feig DI. Childhood hypertension is not a silent disease. Pediatr Nephrol. 2006; 21:527-532. (Prospective questionnaire with retrospective chart review; with matched controls, 343 patients)
9. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, et al, Prevalence of High Body Mass Index in US Children and Adolescents, 2007-2008. JAMA. 2010; 303(3):242-249. (Representative population sample survey review).
10. Brady TM, Fivush B, Parekh RS, et al. Racial differences among children with primary hypertension. Pediatrics. 2010; 126:931-937. (Cross-sectional, prospective; 184 patients)
11. Falkner B, Gidding SS, Portman R, et al. Blood pressure variability and classification of prehypertension and hypertension in adolescence. Pediatrics. 2008;122:238-242. (Database analysis; 8533 patients)
12. Wyszynska T, Cichocka E, Wieteska-Klimczak A, et al. A single pediatric center experience with 1025 children with hypertension. Acta Paediatr. 1992; 81(3):244-246. (Comparative study, 1025 patients)
13. Bulpitt CJ, Fletcher AE, Thijs L, et al. Symptoms reported by elderly patients with isolated systolic hypertension: Baseline data from the SYST-EUR trial. Age Ageing. 1999;28(1):15-22. (Prospective questionnaire; 641 patients)
14. Adams HR, Szilagyi PG, Gebhardt L, et al. Learning and attention problems among children with pediatric primary hypertension. Pediatrics. 2010;126(6):e1425-e1429. (Retrospective review; 201 patients)
15. Kanitkar M. Renovascular hypertension. Indian Pediatr. 2005;42(1):47-54. (Non-systematic review)
16. Ghabril R. Pediatric hypertension: Renovascular hypertension in children. J Med Liban. 2010;58(3):146-148. (Non-systematic review)
17. Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, et al. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5(11):685-694. (Systematic review)
18. Noris M, Remuzzi G. Hemolytic uremic syndrome. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16(4):1035-1050. (Non-systematic review)
19. Repetto HA. Epidemic hemolytic-uremic syndrome in children. Kidney Int. 1997;52(6):1708-1719. (Case reports)
20. Bell BP, Griffin PM, Lozano P, et al. Predictors of hemolytic uremic syndrome in children during a large outbreak of escherichia coli O157:H7 infections. Pediatrics. 1997;100(1):e12. (Retrospective cohort study, 278 patients)
21. Slutsker L, Ries AA, Greene KD, et al. Escherichia coli O157:H7 diarrhea in the United States: Clinical and epidemiologic features. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126(7):505-513. (Population prevalence study)
22. Siegler RL, Pavia AT, Christofferson RD, et al, A 20-year population-based study of postdiarrheal hemolytic uremic syndrome in Utah. Pediatrics. 1994;94(1):35-40. (Retrospective review; 157 patients)
23. Brown T, Mandell J, Lebowitz RL. Neonatal hydronephrosis in the era of sonagraphy. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1987;148(5):959-963. (Retrospective chart review, 142 patients)
24. Bhide A, Sairam S, Farrugia MK, et al. The sensitivity of antenatal ultrasound for predicting renal tract surgery in early childhood. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2005;25:489-492. (Retrospective chart review; 106 patients)
25. Ecder T, Schrier RW. Hypertension in autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease: Early occurrence and unique aspects. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001:12(1);194-200 (Non-systematic review)
26. Guay-Woodford LM, Desmond RA. Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease: The clinical experience in North America. Pediatrics. 2003:111(5);1072-1080. (Retrospective data-base analysis; 209 patients)
27. Hoberman A, Chao HP, Keller DM, et al. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in febrile infants. Pediatrics. 1993;123(1):17-23. (Prospective; 945 patients)
28. Shaw KN, Gorelick M, McGoawan KL, et al. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in febrile young children in the emergency department. Pediatrics. 1998;102(2):e16. (Cross-sectional prevalence survey; 2411 patients)
29. Shaikh N, Morone NE, Bost JE, et al. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in childhood: A meta-analysis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27(4):302-308. (Meta-analysis; 18 articles included)
30. Ronald A. The etiology of urinary tract infection: Traditional and emerging pathogens. Am J Med. 2002;113(1):14S-19S. (Retrospective review)
31. Smellie JM, Normand IC, Katz G. Children with urinary infection: A comparison of those with and those without vesicoureteric reflux. Kidney Int. 1981;20(6):717-722. (Prospective comparative study; 744 patients)
32. International Reflux Study Committee. Medical versus surgical treatment of primary vesicoureteral reflux: Report of the international reflux study committee. Pediatrics. 1981;67(3):392-400. (Prospective, comparative study; 535 VCUG’s)
33. Sica DA. Endocrine causes of secondary hypertension. J Clin Hypertens. 2008;10:534-540. (Non-systematic review)
34. Grinsell MM, Norwood VF. At the bottom of the differential diagnosis list: Unusual causes of pediatric hypertension. Pediatr Nephrol. 2009;24(11):2137-2146. (Non-systematic review)
35. Kamboj M. Endocrine causes of systemic hypertension in children and adolescents: A clinical review. Pediatric Health, Medicine and Therapeutics. 2011;2:39-47. (Non-systematic review)
36. Lodish MB, Sinaii N, Patronas N, et al. Blood pressure in pediatric patients with Cushing Syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009:94(6);2002-2008. (Retrospective review; 113 patients)
37. Hsu LF, Sin Fai Lam KN, et al. Hypertension in the young adult-come feel the pulse. Singapore Med J. 2000;41(5):235-238. (Case series, non-systemic review)
38. Peres A, Martin JDF, Parames F, et al. Isolated aortic coarctation: Experience in 100 consecutive patients. Rev Port Cardiol. 2010;29(1):23-35. (Retrospective, 100 patients)
39. Rocchini AP. Cardiovascular causes of systemic hypertension. Pediatr Clin N Am. 1993;40(1):141-147. (Non-systematic review)
40. Ing FF, Starc TJ, Griffiths SP, et al. Early diagnosis of coarctation of the aorta in children: A continuing dilemma. Pediatrics. 1996;98(3):378-382. (Retrospective chart review; 50 patients)
41. Kim HK, Gottliebson W, Hor K, et al. Cardiovascular anomalies in turner syndrome: Spectrum, prevalence, and cardiac MRI findings in a pediatric and young adult population. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2011;196:454-460. (Retrospective review, 51 patients)
42. Johnson MC, Schneider CJ, Beck AM. Management of systemic hypertension in children and adolescents: An update. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2007;9(5):381-390. (Non-systematic review)
43. Swaminathan A, Levy P, Legome E. Evaluation and management of moderate to severe pediatric head trauma. J Emerg Med. 2009:37(1);63-68. (Non-systematic review)
44. Alherbish A, Charrois TL, Ackman ML, et al. The prevalence of natural health product use in patients with acute cardiovascular disease. PloS ONE. 2011;6(5):e19623. (Prospective convenience sample; 88 patients)
45. Losier A, Taylor B, Fernandez CV. Use of alternative therapies by patients presenting to a pediatric emergency department. J Emer Med. 2005;28(3):267-271. (Prospective survey; 621 surveys)
46. Ball SD, Kertesz D, Moyer-Mileur LJ. Dietary supplement use is prevalent among children with a chronic illness. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005;105:78-84. (Convenience sample, 505 patients)
47. Doyon S. The many faces of ecstasy. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2001;13:170-176. (Non-systematic review)
48. Isnard BC, Deray G, Baumelou A, Le Quintrec M, Vanherweghem JL. Herbs and the kidney. Am J Kidney Dis. 2004;44(1):1-11.
49. Haller CA, Benowitz NL. Adverse cardiovascular and central nervous system events associated with dietary supplements containing ephedra alkaloids. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:1833-1838. (Case review; 140 patients)
50. Valli G, Giardina EGV. Benefits, adverse effects and drug interactions of herbal therapies with cardiovascular effects. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39(7):1083-1095. (Non-systematic review)
51. Cico SJ, Paris CA, Woodward GA. Miscellaneous causes of pediatric chest pain. Pediatr Clin N Am. 2010;57:1397-1406. (Non-systematic review)
52. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Office of Applied Studies. Results from the 2007 national survey on drug use and health: National findings. 2008; NSDUH Series H-34, DHHS Publication No. SMA 08-4343. (State-based design with an independent, multistage areaprobability sample within each state and the District of Columbia)
53. Matsuoka S, Kawamura K, Honda M, et al. White coat effect and White coat hypertension in pediatric patients. Pediatr Nephrol. 2002; 17:950-953. (Prospective, case control; 206 subjects)
54. Acosta AA, McNiece KL. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring: A versatile tool for evaluating and managing hypertension in children. Pediatr Nephrol. 2008;28:1399-1408. (Non-systematic review)
55. Sorof J, Portman R. White coat hypertension in children with elevated casual blood pressure. J Pediatr. 2000;137:493-497. (Retrospective; 67 subjects)
56. Stabouli S, Kotsis V, Toumanidis S, et al. White coat and masked hypertension in children: Association with target-organ damage. Pediatr Nephrol. 2005;20:1151-1155. (Non-systematic review)
57. Lurbe E, Torro I, Alvarez V, et al. Prevalence, persistence, and clinical significance of masked hypertension in youth. Hypertension. 2005;45:493-498. (Prospective, nested-case control; 592 subjects)
58. Swartz SJ, Srivaths PR, Croix Bet al. Cost-effectiveness of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in the initial evaluation of hypertension in children. Pediatrics. 2008;122:1177-1781. (Retrospective; 267 subjects)
59. Sorof J, Poffenbarger T, Franco K, et al. Evaluation of White-coat hypertension in children: Importance of the definitions of normal ambulatory blood pressure and the severity of casual hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2001;14:855-860. (Retrospective; 71 subjects)
60. Pickering TG, Shimbo D, Haas D. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:2368-2374. (Non-systematic review)
61. Marik PE, Varon J. Hypertensive crises: challenges and management. Chest. 2007; 131(6):1949-1962. (Non-systematic review)
62. Thomas CA. Drug treatment of hypertensive crisis in children. Pediatr Drugs. 2011;13(5):281-290. (Non-systematic review)
63. Chandar J, Zillerualo G. Hypertensive crisis in children. Pediatr Nephrol. 2011 Jul 20.Epub ahead of print. (Non-systematic review)
64. Thomas CA, Moffett BS, Wagner JL, et al. Safety and efficacy of intravenous labetalol for hypertensive crisis in infants and small children. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2011;12:28-32. (Retrospective; 27 subjects)
65. Rodriguez MA, Kumar SK, De Caro M. Hypertensive crisis. Cardiol Review. 2010;18:102-107. (Non-systematic review)
66. Majdalani MN. Pediatric hypertension: Management of hypertensive emergencies in children. J Med Liban. 2010;58(3):167-170. (Non-systematic review)
67. Constantine E. The assessment and management of hypertensive emergencies and urgencies in children. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2005;21(6):391-399. (Non-systematic review)
68. Flynn JT. Pediatric hypertension update. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2010;19:292-297. (Non-systematic review)
69. Constantine E, Merritt C. Hypertensive Emergencies in children: Identification and Management of Dangerously High Blood Pressure. Minerva Pediatr. 2009;61:175-184. (Non-systematic review)
70. Hanevold C, Waller J, Daniels S, et al. The effects of obesity, gender, and ethnic group on left ventricular hypertrophy and geometry in hypertensive children: A collaborative study of the international pediatric hypertension association. Pediatrics. 2004;113(2):328-333. (Retrospective review; 129 patients)
71. Belsha CW. Pediatric hypertension in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2008;51:S21-S23. (Non-systematic review)
72. Varon J. Treatment of acute severe hypertension. Drugs. 2008;68(3):283-297. (Non-systematic review)
73. Patel HP, Mitsnefes M. Advances in the pathogenesis and management of hypertensive crisis. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2005;17:210-214. (Non-systematic review)
74. Kavey REW, Daniels SR, Flynn JT. Management of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Cardiol Clin. 2010; 28:597-607. (Non-systematic review)
75. Hamilton BE, Martin JA, Ventura SJ. Births: Preliminary data for 2009. National Vital Statistics Reports 2010; 59(3). (Database review)
76. Rynn KO, Hughes FL, Faley B. An emergency department approach to drug treatment of hypertensive urgency and emergency. Journ Pharm Pract. 2005;18(5):363-376. (Non-systematic review)
77. Varon J, Marik PE. The diagnosis and management of hypertensive crises. Chest. 2000;118:214-227. (Non-systematic review)
78. Flynn JT, Pasko DA. Calcium channel blockers: pharmacology and place in therapy of pediatric hypertension. Pediatr Nephrol. 2000;15:302-316. (Non-systematic review)
79. Houtman P. Management of hypertensive emergencies in children. Pediatr Perinat Drug Ther. 2005;5(3):107-110. (Non-systematic review)
80. Herbert CJ, Vidt DG. Hyertensive crises. Prim Care Clin Office Pract 2008; 35:475-487. (Non-systematic review)
81. Hajjar I, Kotchen TA. Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the united states, 1988-2000. JAMA. 2003;290(2):199-206. (Cross-sectional survey)
82. Copelovitch L , Kaplan BS. Streptococcus pneumoniae-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome: Classification and the emergence of Serotype 19A. Pediatrics 2010: 125(1):e174-e182. (Case series; 14 patients)