Evidence-based medicine requires a critical appraisal of the literature based upon study methodology and number of subjects. Not all references are equally robust. The findings of a large, prospective, randomized, and blinded trial should carry more weight than a case report.

To help the reader judge the strength of each reference, pertinent information about the study, such as the type of study and the number of patients in the study, will be included in bold type following the reference, where available. In addition, the most informative references cited in this paper, as determined by the authors, will be noted by an asterisk (*) next to the number of the reference.

1. Taubenberger JK, Morens DM. 1918 Influenza: the mother of all pandemics. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(1):15-22. (Historical article)
2. Thompson WW, Shay DK, Weintraub E, et al. Mortality associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the United States. JAMA. Jan 8 2003;289(2):179-186. (Retrospective study)
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza Activity. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/weekly/fluactivity.htm. Accessed July 30, 2009. (Website)
4. World Health Organization. 2009 Influenza A Pandemic Statement. Available at: www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2009/h1n1_pandemic_phase6_20090611/en/index.html. Accessed July 30, 2009. (Website)
5. Physicians ACoE. National Strategic Plan for Emergency Department Management of Outbreaks of Novel H1N1 Influenza. 2009. (Strategic management plan)
6. Harper SA, Bradley JS, Englund JA, et al. Seasonal Influenza in Adults and Children — Diagnosis, Treatment, Chemoprophylaxis, and Institutional Outbreak Management. Clinical Practice Guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. Apr 2009;48(8):1003-1032. (Clinical practice guideline)
7. American Academy of Pediatrics. H1N1 Flu (Swine Flu) Information for Health Care Professionals. 2009. (Strategic management plan)
8. Silvennoinen H, Peltola V, Lehtinen P, et al. Clinical presentation of influenza in unselected children treated as outpatients. Pediat Infect Dis J. May 2009;28(5):372-375. (Prospective study; 2231 patients)
9. Butel JS. Orthomyxoviruses (influenza viruses). In: Brooks GF, Carroll KC, Butel JS, Morse SA, eds. Jawetz, Melnick, & Adelberg’s Medical Microbiology. 24th ed. New York: McGraw Hill Medical; 2007. (Online textbook)
10. Palese P. Influenza: old and new threats. Nat Med. Dec 2004;10(12 Suppl):S82-87. (Basic science history)
11. Kilbourne ED. Influenza pandemics of the 20th century. Emerg Infect Dis. Jan 2006;12(1):9-14. (Historical article)
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza Surveillance. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/H1N1FLU/surveillanceqa.htm. Accessed July 24, 2009. (Website)
13. Itoh Y. In vitro and in vivo characterization of new swine-origin H1N1 influenza viruses. Nature. Vol 10. 2009:1-7. (Basic science research)
14. Garske T, Legrand J, Donnelly CA, et al. Assessing the severity of the novel influenza A/H1N1 pandemic. BMJ. 2009;339:b2840. (Epidemiologic study)
15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Case Definition. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/casedef.htm. Accessed July 24, 2009. (Website)
16. * Call SA, Vollenweider MA, Hornung CA, et al. Does this patient have influenza? JAMA. Feb 2005;293(8):987-997. (Systematic review)
17. Monto AS, Gravenstein S, Elliott M, et al. Clinical signs and symptoms predicting influenza infection. Arch Intern Med. Nov 27 2000;160(21):3243-3247. (Retrospective study; 3744 patients)
18. Peltola V, Ziegler T, Ruuskanen O. Influenza A and B virus infections in children. Clin Infect Dis. Feb 2003;36(3):299-305. (Retrospective study; 15420 patients)
19. Peltola V, Reunanen T, Ziegler T, et al. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of influenza in outpatient children. Clin Infect Dis. Oct 2005;41(8):1198-1200.
20. Lim WS, Douglas G, Honeybourne D, et al. Pandemic flu: clinical management of patients with an influenza-like illness during an influenza pandemic. Thorax. Jan 2007;62:1-46. (Clinical practice guidelines – UK)
21. Monto AS. Epidemiology of influenza. Vaccine. Sep 2008;26:D45-D48. (Epidemiologic history)
22. Cox NJ, Subbarao K. Global epidemiology of influenza: past and present. Annu Rev Med. 2000;51:407-421. (Epidemiologic history)
23. Glezen WP. Emerging infections: pandemic influenza. Epidemiol Rev. 1996;18(1):64-76. (Epidemiologic history)
24. * Poehling KA, Edwards KM, Weinberg GA, et al. The underrecognized burden of influenza in young children. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(1):31-40. (Prospective surveillance study)
25. Ploin D, Liberas S, Thouvenot D, et al. Influenza burden in children newborn to eleven months of age in a pediatric emergency department during the peak of an influenza epidemic. Pediat Infect Dis J. 2003;22(10):S218-S222. (Prospective study; 304 patients)
26. Neuzil KM, Wright PF, Mitchel EF, Jr, et al. The burden of influenza illness in children with asthma and other chronic medical conditions. J Pediatr. Dec 2000;137(6):856-864. (Retrospective study)
27. Miller EK, Griffin MR, Edwards KM, et al. Influenza burden for children with asthma. Pediatrics. Jan 2008;121(1):1-8. (Prospective study; 81 patients)
28. Neuzil KM, Mellen BG, Wright PF, et al. The effect of influenza on hospitalizations, outpatient visits, and courses of antibiotics in children. N Engl J Med. Jan 27 2000;342(4):225-231. (Retrospective study)
29. Izurieta HS, Thompson WW, Kramarz P, et al. Influenza and the rates of hospitalization for respiratory disease among infants and young children. N Engl J Med. Jan 27 2000;342(4):232-239. (Retrospective surveillance study)
30. Thompson WW, Shay DK, Weintraub E, et al. Influenza associated hospitalizations in the United States. JAMA. Sep 15 2004;292(11):1333-1340. (Retrospective study)
31. American Academy of Pediatrics. Prevention of influenza: recommendations for influenza immunization of children, 2008-2009. Pediatrics. Nov 2008;122(5):1135-1141. (Clinical policy statement)
32. Bhat N, Wright JG, Broder KR, et al. Influenza-associated deaths among children in the United States, 2003-2004. N Engl J Med. Dec 15 2005;353(24):2559-2567. (Retrospective study; 153 patients)
33. Ampofo K, Gesteland PH, Bender J, et al. Epidemiology, complications, and cost of hospitalization in children with laboratory-confirmed influenza infection. Pediatrics. Dec 2006;118(6):2409-2417. (Retrospective study; 325 patients)
34. Weinstock DM, Gubareva LV, Zuccotti G. Prolonged shedding of multidrug-resistant influenza A virus in an immunocompromised patient. N Engl J Med. Feb 27 2003;348(9):867-868. (Case report)
35. Sato M, Hosoya M, Kato K, et al. Viral shedding in children with influenza virus infections treated with neuraminidase inhibitors. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Oct 2005;24(10):931-932. (Prospective study)
36. Shapiro ED, Ward JI. The epidemiology and prevention of disease caused by Haemophilus influenzae type b. Epidemiol Rev. 1991;13:113-142. (Epidemiologic history)
37. Barry J. The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Deadliest Plague in History; 2004. (Book)
38. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. EMS Pandemic Preparations. Available at: http://www.nhtsa.gov/injury/ems/pandemicinfluenza. Accessed July 30, 2009. (Website)
39. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Hospitalized patients with novel influenza A (H1N1) virus infection - California, April-May, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. May 22 2009;58(19):536-541. (CDC Epidemiologic report)
40. Glezen WP, Greenberg SB, Atmar RL, et al. Impact of respiratory virus infections on persons with chronic underlying conditions. JAMA. Jan 26 2000;283(4):499-505. (Retrospective study; 1029 patients)
41. O’Brien MA, Uyeki TM, Shay DK, et al. Incidence of outpatient visits and hospitalizations related to influenza in infants and young children. Pediatrics. Mar 2004;113(3 Pt 1):585-593. (Retrospective study)
42. Glezen WP, Decker M, Perrotta DM. Survey of underlying conditions of persons hospitalized with acute respiratory disease during influenza epidemics in Houston, 1978-1981. Am Rev Respir Dis. Sep 1987;136(3):550-555. (Retrospective study)
43. Dodds L, McNeil SA, Fell DB, et al. Impact of influenza exposure on rates of hospital admissions and physician visits because of respiratory illness among pregnant women. CMAJ. Feb 13 2007;176(4):463-468. (Epidemiologic study)
44. Neuzil KM, Reed GW, Mitchel EF, et al. Impact of influenza on acute cardiopulmonary hospitalizations in pregnant women. Am J Epidemiol. Dec 1 1998;148(11):1094-1102. (Prospective study; 4369 patients)
45. Piedra PA, Schulman KL, Blumentals WA. Effects of oseltamivir on influenza-related complications in children with chronic medical conditions. Pediatrics. Jul 2009;124(1):170-178. (Retrospective study; 5355 patients)
46. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza Antiviral Medications. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/antivirals/index.htm. Accessed July 30, 2009. (Website)
47. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza Infection Control. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/guidelines_infection_control.htm. Accessed July 30, 2009. (Website)
48. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza Diagnostic Testing. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/ professionals/diagnosis/rapidclin.htm. Accessed July 30, 2009. (Website)
49. Bonner AB, Monroe KW, Talley LI, et al. Impact of the rapid diagnosis of influenza on physician decision-making and patient management in the pediatric emergency department: Results of a randomized, prospective, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2003;112(2):363-367. (Randomized, prospective, controlled trial; 418 patients)
50. Noyola DE, Demmler GJ. Effect of rapid diagnosis on management of influenza A infections. Pediat Infect Dis J. 2000;19(4):303-307. (Retrospective study; 1530 patients)
51. Esposito S, Marchisio P, Morelli P, et al. Effect of a rapid influenza diagnosis. Arch Dis Child. Jun 2003;88(6):525-526. (Randomized controlled trial; 957 patients)
52. D’Heilly SJ, Janoff EN, Nichol P, et al. Rapid diagnosis of influenza infection in older adults: Influence on clinical care in a routine clinical setting. J Clin Virol. Jun 2008;42(2):124-128. (Retrospective study; 311 patients)
53. Falsey AR, Murata Y, Walsh EE. Impact of rapid diagnosis on management of adults hospitalized with influenza. Arch Intern Med. Feb 2007;167(4):354-360. (Retrospective study; 311 patients)
54. Benito-Fernandez J, Vazquez-Ronco MA, Morteruel- Aizkuren E, et al. Impact of rapid viral testing for influenza A and B viruses on management of febrile infants without signs of focal infection. Pediat Infect Dis J. Dec 2006;25(12):1153-1157. (Prospective study; 206 patients)
55. Sharma V, Dowd MD, Slaughter AJ, et al. Effect of rapid diagnosis of influenza virus type A on the emergency department management of febrile infants and toddlers. Arch PediatAdolescent Med. Jan 2002;156(1):41-43. (Retrospective study; 47 patients)
56. Grijalva CG, Poehling KA, Edwards KM, et al. Accuracy and interpretation of rapid influenza tests in children. Pediatrics. Jan 2007;119(1):E6-E11.
57. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza Diagnostic Testing. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/diagnosis/rapidlab.htm. Accessed July 30, 2009. (Website)
58. * Uyeki TM. Influenza diagnosis and treatment in children: a review of studies on clinically useful tests and antiviral treatment for influenza. Pediat Infect Dis J. Feb 2003;22(2):164-177. (Systematic review)
59. * Stein J, Louie J, Flanders S, et al. Performance characteristics of clinical diagnosis, a clinical decision rule, and a rapid influenza test in the detection of influenza infection in a community sample of adults. Ann Emerg Med. 2005;46(5):412-9. (Prospective study; 258 patients)
60. Pinto LH, Lamb RA. Influenza virus proton channels. Photochem Photobiol Sci. Jun 2006;5(6):629-632. (Basic science research)
61. Jefferson T, Demicheli V, Rivetti D, et al. Antivirals for influenza in healthy adults: systematic review. Lancet. 2006;367(9507):303-313. (Systematic review)
62. Jefferson T, Demicheli V, Di Pietrantonj C, et al. Amantadine and rimantadine for influenza A in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006(2):CD001169. (Systematic review)
63. Galvao A. Amantadine and rimantadine for influenza A in children and the elderly. The Cochrane Collaboration. 2009. (Systematic review)
64. Ilyushina NA, Govorkova EA, Webster RG. Detection of amantadine-resistant variants among avian influenza viruses isolated in North America and Asia. Virology. Oct 10 2005;341(1):102-106. (Prospective study)
65. Bright RA, Shay DK, Shu B, et al. Adamantane resistance among influenza A viruses isolated early during the 2005-2006 influenza season in the United States. JAMA. 2006;295(8):891-894. (Prospective study; 209 patients)
66. De Clercq E. Antiviral agents active against influenza A viruses. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. Dec 2006;5(12):1015-1025. (Basic science review)
67. Murphy K, Eivindson A, Pauksens K, et al. Efficacy and safety of inhaled zanamivir for the treatment of influenza in patients with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin Drug Invest. 2000;20(5):337-349. (Randomized controlled trial; 525 patients)
68. Jefferson TO, Demicheli V, Di Pietrantonj C, et al. Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in healthy adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3:CD001265. (Systematic review)
69. Barr CE, Schulman K, Iacuzio D, et al. Effect of oseltamivir on the risk of pneumonia and use of health care services in children with clinically diagnosed influenza. Curr Med Res Opinion. 2007;23(3):523-531. (Retrospective study; 4447 patients)
70. Matheson NJ, Harnden AR, Perera R, et al. Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007(1):CD002744. (Systematic review)
71. Meijer A, Lackenby A, Hungnes O, et al. Oseltamivirresistant influenza virus A (H1N1), Europe, 2007-08 season. Emerg Infect Dis. Apr 2009;15(4):552-560. (Prospective surveillance study)
72. Trifonov V, Khiabanian H, Rabadan R. Geographic dependence, surveillance, and origins of the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) virus. N Engl J Med. Jul 9 2009;361(2):115-119. (Basic science epidemiology)
73. Fraser C, Donnelly CA, Cauchemez S, et al. Pandemic potential of a strain of influenza A (H1N1): early findings. Science. Jun 19 2009;324(5934):1557-1561. (Basic science research)
74. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Novel influenza A (H1N1) virus infections in three pregnant women – United States, April-May 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. May 15 2009;58(18):497-500.
75. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Pregnant women and novel influenza (H1N1) virus: considerations for clinicians. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/clinician_pregnant.htm. Accessed July 30, 2009. (Website)
76. Wang TT, Palese P. Unraveling the mystery of swine influenza virus. Cell. Jun 12 2009;137(6):983-985. (Basic science review article)
77. Belshe RB. Implications of the emergence of a novel H1 influenza virus. N Engl J Med. Jun 18 2009;360(25):2667-2668. (Editorial)
78. * Dawood FS, Jain S, Finelli L, et al. Emergence of a novel swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus in humans. N Engl J Med. Jun 18 2009;360(25):2605-2615. (Epidemiologic surveillance study)
79. Faix DJ, Sherman SS, Waterman SH. Rapid-Test Sensitivity for Novel Swine-Origin Influenza A (H1N1) Virus in Humans. N Engl J Med. Jun 29 2009;361:728. (Correspondence)
80. Horimoto T, Kawaoka Y. Influenza: lessons from past pandemics, warnings from current incidents. Nat Rev Microbiol. Aug 2005;3(8):591-600. (Review article)

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