Evidence-based medicine requires a critical appraisal of the literature based upon study methodology and number of subjects. Not all references are equally robust. The findings of a large, prospective, randomized, and blinded trial should carry more weight than a case report.

To help the reader judge the strength of each reference, pertinent information about the study will be included in bold type following the reference, where available. In addition, the most informative references cited in this paper, as determined by the authors, are noted by an asterisk (*) next to the number of the reference.

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3. McCaig LF, Burt CW. National hospital ambulatory medical care survey: 2003 emergency department summary. Adv Data. 2005;348:1-38. (Survey)
4. Vinson DR. Treatment patterns of isolated benign headache in US emergency departments. Ann Emerg Med. 2002;39(3):215-222. (Survey)
5. Goldstein JN, Camargo CA Jr, Pelletier AJ et al. Headache in United States emergency departments: demographics, work-up and frequency of pathological diagnoses. Cephalagia. 2006;26(6):684-690. (Survey review)
6. Hawkins K, Wang S, Rupnow M. Direct cost burden among insured US employees with migraine. Headache. 2008;48(4):553-563. (Survey)
7. * Friedman BW, et al. Applying the international classification of headache disorders to the emergency department: an assessment of reproducibility and the frequency with which a unique diagnosis can be assigned to every acute headache presentation. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49(4):409-419. (Prospective interview, chart review; 480 patients)
8. Gupta MX, Silberstein SD, Young WB, et al. Less is not more: underutilization of headache medication in a university hospital emergency department. Headache. 2007;47(8):1125-1133. (Prospective survey; 219 patients)
9. Headache Classification Subcommittee of the International Headache Society. The international classification of headache disorders, 2nd edition. Cephalalgia. 2004;24 Suppl 1:9-160. (Guidelines)
10. * American College of Emergency Physicians. Clinical policy for the initial approach to adolescents and adults presenting to the emergency department with a chief complaint of headache. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;27(6):821-844. (Guidelines)
11. American College of Emergency Physicians. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients presenting to the emergency department with acute headache. Ann Emerg Med. January 2002;39(1):108-122. (Guidelines)
12. Edlow JA, Panagos PD, Godwin SA, et al. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients presenting to the emergency department with acute headache. Ann Emerg Med. 2008;52(4):407-436. (Guidelines)
13. * Silberstein SD. Practice parameter: evidence-based guidelines for migraine headache (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2000;55(6):754-762. (Guideline)
14. Pryse-Phillips WE, Dodick DW, Edmeads JG, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of migraine in clinical practice. CMAJ. 1997;156(9):1273-1287. (Guidelines)
15. Ducharme J. Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians guidelines for the acute management of migraine headache. J Emerg Med. 1999;17(1):137-144. (Review article)
16. Evers S, Afra A, Frese P, et al. EFNS guideline on the drug treatment of migraine – revised report of an EFNS task force. Eur J Neurol. 2009;16(9):968-981. (Guideline)
17. Géraud G, Lantéri-Minet M, Lucas C, et al. French guidelines for the diagnosis and management of migraine in adult and children. Clin Ther. 2004;26(8):1305-1318. (Guideline)
18. Olesen J. The international classification of headache disorders. Headache. 2008;48(5): 691-693. (Commentary)
19. Schwartz BS, Stewart WF, Simon D, et al. Epidemiology of tension-type headache. JAMA. 1998;279(5):381-383. (Telephone survey; 13,000 participants)
20. Stewart WF, Lipton RB, Celentano DD, et al. Prevalence of migraine headache in the United States. Relation to age,income, race, and other sociodemographic factors. JAMA. 1992;267(1):64–69. (Survey; 20,000 patients)
21. Lipton RB, Stewart WF, Diamond S, et al. Prevalence and burden of migraine in the United States: data from the American Migraine Study II. Headache. 2001;41(7):646–657. (Survey; 30,000 patients)
22. Lipton RB, Bigal ME, Diamond M, et al. Migraine prevalence, disease burden, and the need for preventive therapy. Neurology. 2007;68(5):343–349. (Survey; 160,000 participants)
23. Robbins MS, Lipton RB. The epidemiology of primary headache disorders. Semin Neurol. 2010;30(2):107-119. (Review article)
24. Edvinsson L, Uddman R. Neurobiology in primary headaches. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2005;48(3):438-456. (Review paper)
25. Edvinsson L. Tracing neural connections to pain pathways with relevance to primary headaches. Cephalalgia. 2011;31(6):737-747. (Review paper)
26. Goadsby PJ. Pathophysiology of migraine. Neurol Clin. 2009;27(2):335-360. (Review paper)
27. Pope JV, Edlow JA. Favorable Response to Analgesics does not predict a benign etiology of headache. Headache. 2008; 48:944-950. (literature review)
28. Rosenberg JH,Silberstein SD. The Headache of SAH responds to Sumatriptan. Headache. 2005; 45: 597-598. (Case report)
29. Seymour JJ, Moscati RM, Jehle DV. Response of headaches to nonnarcotic analgesics resulting in missed intracranial hemorrhage. American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1995; 13:43-45. (case series 3 patients)
30. Forsyth PA, Posner JB. Headaches in patients with brain tumors: a study of 111 patients. Neurology 1993; 43: 1678-1683. (observational)
31. Kothari RU, Pancioli A, Liu T et al. Cincinnati prehospital stroke scale. Reproducibility and validity. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;33:373-378. (Prospective survey; 860 patients)
32. Perry JJ, Stiell IG, Sivilotti ML, et al. High-risk clinical characteristics for subarachnoid haemorrhage in patients with acute headache: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2010;341:c5204. doi:10.1136/bmj.c5204 (Prospective cohort; 1999 patients)
33. Mayer PL, Awad lA, Todor R, et al. Misdiagnosis of symptomatic cerebral aneurysm. Prevalence and correlation with outcome at our institutions. Stroke. 1996;27(9):1558-1563.
34. * Detsky ME, McDonald DR, Baerlocher MO. Does this patient with headache have a migraine or need neuroimaging? JAMA. 2006;296(10):1274-1283. (Systematic review)
35. Waghdhare S, Kalantri A, Joshi R, et al. Accuracy of physical signs for detecting meningitis: A hospital-based diagnostic accuracy study. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2010;112(9)752-757. (Double-blind cross-sectional study; 190 patients)
36. Kaniecki R. Headache assessment and management. JAMA. 2003;289(11):1430-1433. (Review article)
37. Lipton RB, Cady RK, Stewart WF, et al. Diagnostic lessons from the Spectrum Study. Neurology. 2002;58(9 Suppl 6):S27-S31. (Review)
38. Michel P, Henry P, Letenneur L, et al. Diagnostic screen for assessment of the IHS criteria for migraine by general practitioners. Cephalalgia. 1993;13(Suppl 12):54-59. (Survey; 1049 participants)
39. Vinson DR, Hurtado T, Vandenberg JT, et al. Variations among emergency departments in the treatment of benign headaches. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;41(1):90-97. (Retrospective survey)
40. Miner JR, Smith SW, Moore J, et al. Sumatriptan for the treatment of undifferentiated primary headaches in the ED. Am J Emerg Med. 2007;25(1):60-64. (Prospective observational; 147 patients)
41. Trainor A, Miner J. Pain treatment and relief among patients with primary headache subtypes in the ED. Am J Emerg Med. 2008;26:1029. (Prospective observational; 180 patients)
42. Kelley NE, Tepper DE. Rescue therapy for acute migraine, part 3: opioids, NSAIDs, steroids, and post-discharge medications. Headache. 2012;52(3):467-482. (Review)
43. Rabbie R, Derry S, Moore RA, et al. Ibuprofen with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010; 10:CD008039. (Review)
44. Codispoti JR, Prior MJ, Fu M, et al. Efficacy of nonprescription doses of ibuprofen for treating migraine headache. A randomized controlled trial. Headache. 2001;41(7): 665-679. (Placebo-controlled randomized controlled trial; 660 patients, outpatient setting)
45. Diener HC, Bussone G, de Liano H, et al. Placebo-controlled comparison of effervescent acetylsalicylic acid, sumatriptan and ibuprofen in the treatment of migraine attacks. Cephalalgia. 2004;24:947–954. (Randomized controlled trial; 312 patients, outpatient setting)
46. Kirthi V, Derry S, Moore RA, et al. Aspirin with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;4:CD008041. (Meta-analysis)
47. Suthisisang CC, Poolsup N, Suksomboon N, et al. Meta-analysis of the efficacy and safety of naproxen sodium in the acute treatment of migraines. Headache. 2010;50(5):808-818. (Meta-analysis)
48. Derry S, Rabbie R, Moore RA. Diclofenac with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;2:CD008783. (Review)
49. Turturro MA, Paris PM, Seaberg DC. Intramuscular ketorolac versus oral ibuprofen in acute musculoskeletal pain. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26:1(2)17-120. (Randomized controlled trial; 82 patients)
50. Neighbor ML, Puntillo KA. Intramuscular ketorolac vs oral ibuprofen in emergency department patients with acute pain. Acad Emerg Med. 1998;5(2):118-122. (Randomized controlled trial; 119 patients)
51. Shrestha M, Singh R, Moreden J et al. Ketorolac vs chlorpromazine in the treatment of acute migraine without aura. A prospective, randomized, double-blind trial. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156(15):1725-1728. (Randomized controlled trial; 30 patients)
52. Duarte C, Dunaway F, Turner L, et al. Ketorolac versus meperidine and hydroxyzine in the treatment of acute migraine headache: a randomized, prospective, double-blind trial. Ann Emerg Med. 1992;21(9):1116-1121. (Randomized controlled trial; 47 patients)
53. Larkin GL, Prescott JE. A randomized, double-blind, comparative study of the efficacy of ketorolac tromethamine versus meperidine in the treatment of severe migraine. Ann Emerg Med. 1992;21(8):919-924. (Randomized controlled trial; 31 patients)
54. Davis CP, Torre PR, Williams C, et al. Ketorolac versus meperidine-plus-promethazine treatment of migraine headache: evaluations by patients. Am J Emerg Med. 1995;13(2):146-150. (Randomized controlled trial; 42 patients)
55. Meredith JT, Wait S, Brewer KL. A prospective double-blind study of nasal sumatriptan versus IV ketorolac in migraine. Am J Emerg Med. 2003;21(3):173-175. (Randomized controlled trial; 29 patients)
56. Seim MB, March JA, Dunn KA. Intravenous ketorolac vs intravenous prochlorperazine for the treatment of migraine headaches. Acad Emerg Med. 1998;5(6):573-576. (Randomized controlled trial; 64 patients)
57. Jakubowski M, Levy D, Goor-Aryeh I, et al. Terminating migraine with allodynia and ongoing central sensitization using parenteral administration of COX1/COX2 inhibitors. Headache. 2005;45(7):850-861.
58. Derry S, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;11:CD008040. (Review)
59. McBride JT. The association of acetaminophen and asthma prevalence and severity. Pediatrics. 2011;128(6):1181-1185. (Review)
60. Goldstein J, Silberstein SD, Saper JR, et al. Acetaminophen, aspirin, and caffeine in combination versus ibuprofen for acute migraine: results from a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, parallel-group, single-dose, placebo-controlled study. Headache. 2006;46(3):444-453. (Randomized controlled trial; 1555 patients)
61. Coleman I, Brown MD, Innes GD, et al. Parenteral dihydroergotamine for acute migraine headache: a systematic review of the literature. Ann Emerg Med. 2005;45(4):393-401. (Systematic review)
62. Kelley NE, Tepper DE. Rescue therapy for acute migraine, part 2: neuroleptics, antihistamines, and others. Headache. 2012;52(2):292-306. (Review)
63. McEwen JI, O’Connor HM, Dinsdale HB. Treatment of migraine with intramuscular chlorpromazine. Ann Emerg Med. 1987;16(7):758-763. (Randomized controlled trial; 36 patients)
64. Bigal ME, Bordini CA, Speciali JG. Intravenous chlorpromazine in the emergency department treatment of migraine: A randomized controlled trial. J Emerg Med. 2002;23(2):141-148. (Randomized controlled trial; 60 patients)
65. Lane PL, McLellan BA, Baggoley CJ. Comparative efficacy of chlorpromazine and meperidine with dimenhydrinate in migraine headache. Ann Emerg Med. 1989;18(4):360-365. (Randomized controlled trial; 46 patients)
66. Bell R, Montoya D, Shuaib A, et al. A comparative trial of three agents in the treatment of acute migraine headache. Ann Emerg Med 1990;19(10):1079-1082. (Randomized controlled trial; 76 patients)
67. Kelly AM, Ardagh M, Curry C, et al. Intravenous chlorpromazine vs intramuscular sumatriptan for acute migraine. Ann Emerg Med. 1997;14(4):209-211. (Randomized controlled trial; 43 patients)
68. Tek DS, McClellan DS, Olshaker JS, et al. A prospective, double-blind study of metoclopramide hydrochloride for the control of migraine in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1990;19(10):1083-1087. (Randomized controlled trial; 67 patients)
69. Cete Y, Doara B, Ertan C, et al. A randomized prospective placebo-controlled study of intravenous magnesium sulphate vs metoclopramide in the management of acute migraine attacks in the emergency department. Cephalagia. 2005;25(3):199-204. (Randomized controlled trial; 114 patients)
70. Tfelt-Hansen P, Olesen J, Aebelholt-Krabbe A, et al. A double-blind study of metoclopramide in the treatment of migraine attacks. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1980;43(4):369-371. (Randomized controlled trial; 150 patients)
71. Colman I, Brown M, Innes GD, et al. Parenteral metoclopramide for acute migraine: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2004;329(7479):1369-1373. (Meta-analysis)
72. Friedman BW, Corbo J, Lipton RB, et al. A trial of metoclopramide vs sumatriptan for the emergency department treatment of migraines. Neurology. 2005;64(3):463-468. (Randomized controlled trial; 202 patients)
73. Ellis GL, Delaney J, DeHart DA, et al. The efficacy of metoclopramide in the treatment of migraine headache. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22(2):191-195. (Randomized controlled trial; 40 patients)
74. Jones J, Sklar D, Dougherty J, et al. Randomized double-blind trial of intravenous prochlorperazine for the treatment of acute headache. JAMA. 1989;261(8):1174-1176. (Randomized controlled trial; 82 patients)
75. Coppola M, Yealy DM, Leibold RA. Randomized, placebo-controlled evaluation of prochlorperazine versus metoclopramide for emergency department treatment of migraine headaches. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26(5):541-546. (Randomized controlled trial; 70 patients)
76. Friedman BW, Esses D, Solorzano C, et al. A randomized controlled trial of prochlorperazine versus metoclopramide for treatment of acute migraine. Ann Emerg Med. 2008;52(4):399-406. (Randomized controlled trial; 77 patients)
77. Jones J, Pack S, Chun E. Intramuscular prochlorperazine versus metoclopramide as single agent therapy for the treatment of acute migraine headache. Am J Emerg Med. 1996;14(3):262-265. (Randomized controlled trial; 86 patients)
78. Kostic MA, Gutierrez FJ, Rieg TS, et al. A prospective randomized trial of intravenous prochlorperazine versus subcutaneous sumatriptan in acute migraine therapy in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2010;56(1):1-6. (Randomized controlled trial; 68 patients)
79. Tanen DA, Miller S, French T. Intravenous sodium valproate versus prochlorperazine for the emergency department treatment of acute migraine headaches: a prospective, randomized, double blind trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2003; 41(6): 847-853. (Randomized controlled trial; 40 patients)
80. Miller MA, Levsky ME, Enslow W, et al. Randomized evaluation of octreotide vs prochlorperazine for ED treatment of migraine headache. Am J Emerg Med. 2009;27(2):160-164. (Randomized controlled trial; 44 patients)
81. Callan JE, Kostic MA, Bachrach EA et al. Prochlorperazine vs promethazine for headache treatment in the emergency department: A randomized controlled trial. J Emerg Med. 2008;35(3):247-253. (Randomized controlled trial; 70 patients)
82. Drotts DL, Vinson DR. Prochlorperazine induces akathisia in emergency patients. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;34(4 Pt 1):469-475. (Prospective observational 140 patients)
83. Regan LA, Hoffman RS, Nelson LS. Slower infusion of metoclopramide decreases the rate of akathisia. Am J Emerg Med. 2009;27(4):475-480. (Randomized controlled trial; 127 patients)
84. Vinson DR, Migala AF, Quesenberry CP. Slow infusion for the prevention of akathisia induced by prochlorperazine: A randomized controlled trial. J Emerg Med. 2001;20(2):113-119. (Randomized controlled trial; 160 patients)
85. Vinson DR, Drotts DL. Diphenhydramine for the prevention of akathisia induced by prochlorperazine: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2001;37(2):125-131. (Randomized controlled trial; 100 patients)
86. Friedman BW, Bender B, Davitt M, et al. A randomized trial of diphenhydramine as prophylaxis against metoclopramide induced akathisia in nauseated emergency department patients. Ann Emerg Med. 2009;53(3):379-385. (Randomized controlled trial; 289 patients)
87. Honkaniemi J, Liimatainen S, Rainesalo S, et al. Haloperidol in the acute treatment of migraine: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Headache. 2006;46(5):781-787. (Randomized double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial; 40 patients)
88. Silberstein SD, Young WB, Mendizabal JE, et al. Acute migraine treatment with droperidol: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology. 2003;60(2):315-321. (Randomized double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial; 331 patients)
89. Richman PB, Allegra J, Eskin B, et al. A randomized clinical trial to assess the efficacy of intramuscular droperidol for the treatment of acute migraine headache. Am J Emerg Med. 2002;20(1):39-42. (Randomized, double-blinded; 29 patients)
90. Miner JR, Fish SJ, Smith SW, et al. Droperidol vs prochlorperazine for benign headaches in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2001;8(9):873-879. (Prospective single-blinded randomized controlled trial; 162 patients)
91. Weaver CS, Jones JB, Chisholm CD, et al. Droperidol vs prochlorperazine for the treatment of acute headache. J Emerg Med. 2004;26(2):145-150. (Randomized, blinded; 96 patients)
92. Kelley NE, Tepper DE. Rescue therapy for acute migraine, part 1: triptans, dihydroergotamine, and magnesium. Headache. 2012;52(1):114-128. (Review)
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97. Derry CJ, Derry S, Moore RA. Sumatriptan (oral route of administration) for acute migraine attacks in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;2: CD008615. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD008615.pub2. (Meta-analysis)
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