Evidence-based medicine requires a critical appraisal of the literature based upon study methodology and number of subjects. Not all references are equally robust. The findings of a large, prospective, randomized, and blinded trial should carry more weight than a case report.

To help the reader judge the strength of each reference, pertinent information about the study, such as the type of study and the number of patients in the study, will be included in bold type following the reference, where available. In addition, the most informative references cited in this paper, as determined by the authors, will be noted by an asterisk (*) next to the number of the reference.

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3. Raux Demay MC, Magny JP, Indres N. et al. Use of the low-dose corticotropin stimulation test for the monitoring of children with asthma treated with inhaled corticosteroids. Horm Res. 2006;66(2):51-60. (Prospective study; 100 patients)
4. Mortimer KJ, Tata LJ, Smith CJ, et al. Oral and inhaled corticosteroids and adrenal insufficiency; a case -control study. Thorax. 2006;61(5):405-408. (Case-control study; 1024 patients)
5. Paton J, Jardine E. McNeill E, et al. Adrenal responses to low dose ACTH (Synacthen) in children receiving high dose inhaled fluticasone. Arch Dis Child. 2006;91(10):808-813. (Prospective study; 217 patients)
6. Ellison JA, Patel L, Ray DW, et al. Hypothalmic – pituitary – adrenal function and glucocorticoid sensitivity in atopic dermatitis. Pediatrics. 2000;105(4):794-799. (Prospective study; 35 patients)
7. Perry RJ, Findlay CA, Donaldson MD. Cushing’s syndrome, growth impairment, and occult adrenal suppression associated with intranasal steroids, Arch Dis Child. 2002;87:45-48. (Case series; 9 patients)
8. Grosse SD, Van Vliet G. How many deaths can be prevented by newborn screening for congenital adrenal hyperplasia? Horm Res. 2007;67:284-291. (Meta-analysis)
9. Kovacs J, Votava F, Heinze G, et al. Lessons from 30 years of clinical diagnosis and treatment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia in five middle European countries. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(7):2958-2964. (Retrospective; 484 patients)
10. Speiser PW, White PC. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(8);776-788. (Review)
11. Mussig K. Kaltenbach S, Maser-Gluth C, et al. Late diagnosis of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Exp Clin Endocinol Diabetes. 2006;114(4):208-214. (Case report)
12. Stackpole RH, Melicow MM, Uson AC. Pheochromocytoma in children. Report of 9 cases and review of the first 100 published cases with follow-up studies. J Pediatr. 1963;63:314-330. (Case series)
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18. Kaufman BH, Telander RL, vanHeerden JA, et al. Pheochromocytoma in the pediatric age group: current status. J Pediatr Surg. 1983;18(6):879-884. (Case series; 16 patients)
19. Stringel G, Ein SH, Creighton R, et al. Pheochromocytoma in children – an update. J Pediatr Surg. 1980;15(4):496-500.
20. Caty MG, Coran AG, Geagen M, et al. Current diagnosis and treatment of pheochromocytoma in children. Experience with 22 consecutive tumors in 14 patients. Arch Surg. 1998;125(8):978-981. (Case series)
21. Deal JE, Sever PS, Barratt TM, et al. Pheochromocytomainvestigation and management of 10 cases. Arch Dis Child. 1990;65(3):269-274. (Case series)
22. Hatherhill M, Tibby SM, Hilliard T, et al. Adrenal insufficiency in septic shock. Arch Dis Child. 1999;80(1):51-55. (Case series; 33 patients)
23. Pizarro CF, Troster EJ, Damiani D, et al. Absolute and relative adrenal insufficiency in children with septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(4):855-859. (Prospective cohort study; 57 patients)
24. den Brinker M, Joosten KF, Liem O, et al. Adrenal insufficiency in meningococcal sepsis: Bioavailable cortisol levels and impact of interleukin-6 levels and intubation with etomidate on adrenal function and mortality. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(9):5110-5117. (Observation cohort study; 60 patients)
25. Schlagheeke R, Kornely E, Stanten RT, et al. The effect of long-term glucocorticoid therapy on pituitary-adrenal response to exogenous corticotropin-releasing hormone. N Engl J Med. 1992;326(4): 226-230. (Prospective study; 279 patients)
26. Simm PJ, McDonnell CM, Zacharin MR. Primary adrenal insufficiency in childhood and adolescence: Advances in diagnosis and management. J Pediatr Child Health. 2004;40(11):596-599. (Case series; 16 patients)
27. Kappy MS. Bajaj L. Recognition and treatment of endocrine/ metabolic emergencies in children: Part 1. Adv Pediatr. 2002;49:245-272 (Review)
28. Wilson TA, Speiser P. Adrenal insufficiency. [online publication]. WebMD: emedicine;2007. 16p. (Review)
29. Hume DM. Pheochromocytoma in the adult and in the child. Am J Surg. 1960;99:458-496. (Case series; 71 patients)
30. Ein SH, Pullerits R, Creighton J, et al. Pediatric pheochromocytoma. A 36-year review. Ped Surg Int. 1997;12(8):595-598. (Case series; 14 patients)
31. Revillon Y, Daher P, Jan D, et al. Pheochromocytoma in children: 15 cases. J Pediatr Surg. 1992;27(7):910-911. (Case series)
32. Tekautz TM, Pratt CB, Jenkins JJ, et al. Pediatric extraadrenal paraganglioma. J Pediatr Surg. 2003;38(9):1317-1321. (Case series; 8 patients)
33. Singhi SC, Bansal A. Serum cortisol levels in children with acute bacterial and aseptic meningitis. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2006;7(1):74-78. (Prospective study; 30 patients)
34. Menon K. Clarson C. Adrenal function in pediatric critical illness. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2002;3(2):112-116. (Prospective study; 13 patients)
35. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(3):858-873. (Guideline)
36. Lenders JW, Pacak K, Walther MM. Biochemical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma: which test is best? JAMA. 2002;287(11):1427-1434. (Cohort study; 214 patients)
37. Langer M. Modi BP, Agus M. Adrenal insufficiency in the critically ill neonate and child. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2006;18(4):448-453. (Review)
38. Nickels DA, Moore DC. Serum cortisol responses in febrile children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1989;8(1):16-20. (Prospective study; 76 patients)
39. White PC, Speiser PW. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Endocr Rev. 2000;21(3):245-291. (Review)
40. Clayton PE, Miller WL, Oberfield SE, et al. Consensus statement on 21-hydroxylase deficiency from the European society for paediatric endocrinology and the Lawson Wilkins pediatric endocrine society. Horm Res. 2002;58(4):188-195. (Consensus statement)
41. Levine A, Cohen D, Zadik Z. Urinary free cortisol values in children under stress. J Pediatr. 1994;125(6):853-857. (Prospective study; 78 patients)
42. Hack HA. The perioperative management of children with phaeochromocytoma. Paediatr Anesth. 2000;10(5):463-476. (Review)
43. Mishra A, Agarwal G, Misra AK, et al. Functioning adrenal tumours in children and adolescents: an institutional experience. ANZ J Surg. 2001;71(2):103-112. (Case series; 13 patients)
44. Ghirardello S, Malattia C, Scagnelli P, et al. Current perspective on the pathogenesis of central diabetes insipidus. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2005;18(7):631-645. (Review)
45. Maghnie M, Cosi G, Genovese E, et al. Central diabetes insipidus in children and young adults. N. Engl J Med. 2000;343(14):998-1007. (Case series; 79 patients)
46. Al-Agha AE, Thomsett MJ, Ratcliffe JF, et al. Acquired central diabetes insipidus in children: a 12-year Brisbane experience. J Pediatr Child Health. 2001;37(2):172-175. (Case series; 39 patients)
47. Jaruratanasirikul S, Janjindamai S, Sriplung H, et al. Etiologies of central diabetes insipidus in children: 15 years experience in Songklanagarind hospital, Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai. 2002;85:765-771. (Case series; 29 patients)
48. Wang LC, Cohen ME, Duffner PK. Etiologies of central diabetes insipidus in children. Pediatr Neurol. 1994;11(4):273- 277. (Case series; 35 patients)
49. Czernichow P, Pomarede R, Basmaciogullari A, et al. Diabetes insipidus in children. III. Anterior pituitary dysfunction in idiopathic types. J Pediatr. 1985;106(1):41-44. (Case series; 17 patients)
50. Kittayalaksakun S, Suttipong W, Srivuthana S. Children with clinical central diabetes insipidus at King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital. J Med Assoc Thai. 2005;88(Suppl 4):S17- 22. (Case series; 51 patients)
51. Gitelman SE, Feldman BJ, Rosenthal SM. Nephrogenic syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis; a novel disorder in water balance in pediatric patients. Am J Med. 2006;119(7A):S54- S58. (Case series; 2 patients)
52. Padilla G, Leake JA, Castro R, et al. Vasopressin levels and pediatric head trauma. Pediatrics. 1989;83(5):700-705. (Case control study; 26 patients)
53. Skowsky WR, Fisher DA. Intermittent, idiopathic, inappropriate vasopressin secretion in a child. J Pediatr. 1973;83:62- 68. (Case report)
54. Sklar C, Fertig A, Raphael D. Chronic syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone in childhood. Am J Dis Child. 1985;139(7):733-735. (Case series; 3 patients)
55. Kaplan SL, Feigin RD. Syndromes of inappropriate secretion of antidiurectic hormone in children. Adv Pediatr. 1980;27:247-274. (Review)
56. Smith TJ, Gill JC, Hathaway WE. Hyponatremia and seizures in young children given DDAVP. Am J Hematol. 1989;31(3):199-202. (Case series; 4 patients)
57. Majzoub JA, Srivatsa A. Diabetes insipidus: clinical and basic aspects. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev. 2006;4(Suppl 1):60-65. (Review)
58. Kappy MS, Bajaj L. Recognition and treatment of endocrine/metabolic emergencies in children: part II. Adv Pediatr. 2003;50:181-214. (Review)
59. Moritz ML, Ayus JC. Preventing neurologic complications from dysnatremias in children. Pediatr Nephrol. 2005;20(12):1687-1700. (Review)
60. Trimarchi T. Endocrine problems in critically ill children: an overview. AACN Clin Issues. 2006;17(1):66-78. (Review)
61. Kappy MS, Ganong CA. Cerebral salt wasting in children: the role of atrial natriuretic hormone. Adv Pediatr. 1996;43:271-308. (Review)
62. Lin M, Liu SJ, Lim IT. Disorders of water imbalance. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2005;23(3):749-770. (Review)
63. Adrogue HJ, Madias NE. Hyponatremia. N. Engl J Med. 2000;342(21):1581-1589 (Review)
64. Linshaw MA. Back to basics: Congenital nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Pediatr Rev. 2007;28(10):372-380. (Review)
65. Albanese A, Hindmarsh P, Stanhope R. Management of hyponatremia in patients with acute cerebral insults. Arch Dis Child. 2001;85;246-251. (Review)
66. Ayus JC, Armstrong DL, Arieff AI. Effects of hypernatremia in the central nervous system and it’s therapy in rats and rabbits. J Physiol. 1996;492:243-255. (Animal study)
67. Adrogue HJ, Madias NE. Hypernatremia. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(20):1493–1499. (Review)
68. Hogan GR, Dodge PR, Gill SR, et al. Pathogenesis of seizures occurring during restoration of plasma tonicity to normal in animals previously chronically hypernatremic. Pediatrics. 1969:43(1):54-64. (Animal study)
69. Arieff AI, Guisado R. Effects on the central nervous system of hypernatremic and hyponatremic states. Kidney Int. 1976;10(1):104-116. (Review)
70. Kahn A, Brachet E, Blum D. Controlled fall in natremia and risk of seizures in hypertonic dehydration. Intensive Care Med. 1979;5(1):27-31. (Prospective; 56 children)
71. Blum D, Brasseur D, Kahn A, et al. Safe oral rehydration of hypertonic dehydration. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1986;5(2):232-235. (Case control study; 44 children)
72. Rosenfeld W., deRomana GL, Kleinman R, et al. Improving the clinical management of hypernatremic dehydration. Observations from a study of 67 infants with this disorder. Clin Pediatr. (Phila) 1977;16(5):411-417. (Retrospective; 67 patients)
73. Banister A, Matin-Siddiqi SA, Hatcher GW. Treatment of hypernatraemic dehydration in infancy. Arch Dis Child. 1975;50(3):179-186. (38 infants)
74. Palmer BF. Hyponatremia in patients with central nervous system disease. SIADH verses CSW. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2003;14(4):182-187. (Review)
75. Laureno R. Central pontine myelinolysis following rapid correction of hyponatremia. Ann Neurol. 1983;13(3):232-242. (Animal study)
76. Norenberg MD, Leslie KO, Robertson AS. Association between rise in serum sodium and central pontine myelinolysis. Ann Neurol. 1982;11(2):128-135. (Retrospective; 12 patients)
77. Karp BI, Laureno R. Pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis: a neurologic disorder following rapid correction of hyponatremia. Medicine. (Baltimore) 1993;72(6):359-373. (Retrospective; 14 patients)
78. Sterns RH. Treating hyponatremia: Why haste makes waste. South Med J. 1994;87(12):1283-1287. (Review)
79. Ayus JC, Krothapalli RK, Arieff AI. Treatment of symptomatic hyponatremia and its relation to brain damage. A prospective study. N. Engl J Med. 1987;317(19):1190-1195. (Prospective and retrospective; 72 patients)
80. Sterns RH, Cappuccio JD, Silver SM, et al. Neurologic sequelae after treatment of severe hyponatremia: A multicenter perspective. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1994;4:1522-1530. (Retrospective; 56 patients)
81. Sterns RH, Riggs JE, Schochet SS. Osmotic demyelination syndrome following correction of hyponatremia. N Engl J Med. 1986;314(24):1535-1342. (Retrospective; 8 patients)
82. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(1):296-327 (Guideline)
83. den Brinker M, Hokken-Koelega AC, Hazelzet JA, et al. Single dose of etomidate negatively influences adrenocortical performance for at least 24h in children with meningococcal sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34(1):163-168. (Retrospective; 60 patients)
84. Jimenez R, Casado-Florez J, Nieto M, et al. Cerebral salt wasting syndrome in children with acute central nervous system injury. Pediatr Neurol. 2006;35:261-263. (Retrospective; 14 patients)
85. Waller KD, Anderson JL, Lorey F, et al. Risk factors for congenital hypothyroidism: an investigation of infant’s birth weight, ethnicity, and gender in California, 1990-1998. Teratology. 2000;62:36-41. (Retrospective; 1806 patients)
86. LaFranchi S. Congenital hypothyroidism: etiologies, diagnosis, and management. Thyroid. 1999;9(7):735-740. (Review)
87. Hanna CE, Krainz PL, Skeels MR, et al. Detection of congenital hypopituitary hypothyroidism: ten-year experience in the northwest regional screening program. J Pediatr. 1986:109(6):959-964. (Retrospective)
88. Holtzman C, Slazyk WE, Cordero JF, et al. Descriptive epidemiology of missed cases of phenylketonuria and congenital hypothyroidism. Pediatrics. 1986:78(4):553-558. (Case series; 76 patients)
89. de Vries L, Bulvick S, Phillip M. Chronic autoimmune thyroiditis in children and adolescents: at presentation and during long-term follow-up. Arch Dis Child. 2009:94;33-37. (Retrospective; 114 patients)
90. Counts D, Varma SV. Hypothyroidism in children. Pediatr Rev. 2009:30(7);251-257. (Review)
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92. Virtanen M. Manifestations of congenital hypothyroidism during the 1st week of life. Eur J Pediatr. 1988:147;270-274. (Case-control study; 102 patients)
93. Grant DB, Smith I, Fuggle PW, et al. Congenital hypothyroidism detected by neonatal screening: relationship between biochemical severity and early clinical features. Arch Dis Child. 1992:67;87-90. (Case-control study; 449 patients)
94. Foley TP. Hypothyroidism. Pediatr Rev. 2004:25(3);94-100. (Review)
95. No authors listed. Update of newborn screening and therapy for congenital hypothyroidism. Pediatrics. 2006:117(6);2290- 2303. (Review and clinical guideline)
96. Hanna CE, LaFranchi SH. Adolescent thyroid disorders. Adolesc Med. 2002:13(1);13-35. (Review)
97. Cohen JH, Ingbar SH, Braverman LE. Thyrotoxicosis due to ingestion of excess thyroid hormone. Endocr Rev. 1989:10(2):113-124. (Review)
98. Ogilvy-Stuart AL. Neonatal thyroid disorders. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2002: 87(3);F165-171. (Review)
99. Foley TP. Thyrotoxicosis in childhood. Pediatr Ann. 1992:21(1);43-49. (Review)
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104. Kadmon PM, Noto RB, Boney CM, et al. Thyroid storm in a child following radioactive iodine (RAI) therapy: a consequence of RAI versus withdrawal of antithyroid medication. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001:86(5);1865-1867. (Case report)
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112. Hollingsworth DR, Mabry CC. Congenital Graves’ disease. Am J Dis Child. 1976;130:148-155. (Case series; 4 patients)
113. Burch HB, Wartofsky L. Life-threatening thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1993;22:263-277. (Review)
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115. Vanderpump MPJ, Ahlquist JAO, Franklyn JA, et al. Consensus statement for good practice and audit measures in the management of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. BMJ. 1996; 313(7056):539-544. (Practice guideline)
116. McKeown NJ, Tews MC, Gossain VV, et al. Hyperthyroidism. Emerg Med Clin N Am. 2005;23(3):669-685. (Review)
117. Perrild H. Gruters-Kieslich A, Feldt-Rasmussen U, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of thyrotoxicosis in childhood. A European questionnaire study. Eur J Endocrinol. 1994;131:467- 473. (Consensus study)
118. Nayak B, Burman K. Thyrotoxicosis and thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am. 2006;35: 663-686. (Review)
119. Cooper DS. Antithyroid drugs in the management of patients with Graves’ disease: an evidence-based approach to therapeutic controversies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:3474-3481. (Practice guideline)
120. Peters CJ, Hindmarsh PC. Management of neonatal endocrinopathies – Best practice guidelines. Early Hum Dev. 2007;83(9);553-561. (Practice guideline)
121. Rivkees SA, Mattison DR. Propylthiouracil (PTU) hepatotoxicity in children and recommendations for discontinuation of use. Int J Pediatr Endocrinol. 2009;132041:Epub 2009. (Review and commentary)
122. Rivkees SA. Pediatric Graves’’ disease: controversies in management. Horm Res Paediatr. 2010;74:305-311. (Review)
123. Rivkees SA, Szarfman A. Dissimilar hepatotoxicity profiles of propylthiouracil and methimazole in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95(7):3260-3267. (Retrospective study)