Evidence-based medicine requires a critical appraisal of the literature based upon study methodology and number of subjects. Not all references are equally robust. The findings of a large, prospective, randomized, and blinded trial should carry more weight than a case report.

To help the reader judge the strength of each reference, pertinent information about the study, such as the type of study and the number of patients in the study, will be included in bold type following the reference, where available. In addition, the most informative references cited in this paper, as determined by the authors, will be noted by an asterisk (*) next to the number of the reference.

1. Baverstock R, Simons R, McLoughlin M. Severe blunt renal trauma: a 7-year retrospective review from a provincial trauma centre. Can J Urol. 2001;8(5):1372?1376. (Retrospective review; 6250 patients)
2. Carroll PR, McAninch JW. Staging of renal trauma. Urol Clin North Am. 1989;16:193?201. (Review article)
3. Krieger JN, Algood CB, Mason JT, et al. Urological trauma in the Pacific Northwest: etiology, distribution, management and outcome. J Urol. 1984;132:70?73. (Retrospective; 184 patients)
4. Stein JP, Kaji DM, Eastham J, Freeman JA, Esrig D, Hardy BE. Blunt renal trauma in the pediatric population: indications for radiographic evaluation. Urology. 1994;44(3): 406-410. (Retrospective; 48 patients)
5. Kuzmarov IW, Morehouse DD, Gibson S. Blunt renal trauma in the pediatric population: a retrospective study. J Urol. 1981;126(5):648-649. (Retrospective; 22 patients)
6. Abou-Jaoude WA, Sugarman JM, Fallat ME, Casale AJ. Indicators of genitourinary tract injury or anomaly in cases of pediatric blunt trauma. J Pediatr Surg. 1996;31(1): 86-89. (Retrospective; 100 patients)
7. Lieu TA, Fleisher GR, Mahboubi S, Schwartz JS. Hematuria and clinical findings as indications for intravenous pyelography in pediatric blunt renal trauma. Pediatrics. 1988;82(2):216-222. (Retrospective; 78 patients)
8. Miller KS, McAninch JW. Radiographic assessment of renal trauma: our 15-year experience. J Urol. 1995;154:352?355. (Retrospective; 2254 patients)
9. Sagalowsky AI, Peters PC. Genitourinary trauma. In: Walsh PC, Retik AB, Vaughan ED Jr, et al, eds. Campbell's Urology, Vol 3. 7th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1999:3085?3119. (Textbook chapter)
10. Mee SL, McAninch JW, Robinson AL, et al. Radiographic assessment of renal trauma: a 10-year prospective study of patient selection. J Urol. 1989;141:1095?1098. (Prospective study; 1146 patients)
11. Nicolaisen GS, McAninch JW, Marshall GA, et al. Renal trauma: re-evaluation of the indications for radiographic assessment. J Urol. 1985;133:183?187. (Prospective study; 359 patients)
12. Brown SL, Haas C, Dinchman KH, Elder JS, Spirnak JP. Radiographic evaluation of pediatric blunt renal trauma in patients with microscopic hematuria. World J Surg 2001;25(12):1557-1560. (Retrospective review; 1200 patients)
13. Lee YJ, Oh SN, Rha SE, et al: Renal trauma. Radiol Clin North Am. 2007;45:581-592. (Review)
14. Ford EG, Karamanoukian HL, McGrath N, Mahour GH. Emergency center laboratory evaluation of pediatric trauma victims. Am Surg. 1990; 56(12):752-757. (Retrospective; 100 patients)
15. Miller RC, Sterioff S Jr, Drucker WR, Persky L, Wright HK, Davis JH. The incidental discovery of occult abdominal tumors in children following blunt abdominal trauma. J Trauma. 1966;6(1):99-106. (Case series; 14 patients)
16. Ceylan H, Gunsar C, Etensel B, Sencan A, Karaca I, Mir E. Blunt renal injuries in Turkish children: a review of 205 cases. Pediatr Surg Int. 2003;19(11):710-714. (Retrospective review; 205 patients)
17. Bass DH, Semple PL, Cywes S. Investigation and management of blunt renal injuries in children: a review of 11 years' experience. J Pediatr Surg. 1991;26(2):196-200. (Retrospective review; 333 patients)
18. Sandler CM, Amis ES Jr, Bigongiari LR, et al. Diagnostic approach to renal trauma. American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria. Radiology. 2000;215(Suppl):727?731. (Review)
19. Brown SL, Haas C, Dinchman KH, Elder JS, Spirnak JP. Radiographic evaluation of pediatric blunt renal trauma in patients with microscopic hematuria. World J Surg. 2001;25(12):1557-1560. (Retrospective review; 1200 patients)
20. Matthews LA, Smith EM, Spirnak JP. Nonoperative treatment of major blunt renal lacerations with urinary extravasation. J Urol. 1997;157(6):2056?2058. (Retrospective review; 31 patients)
21. Moudouni SM, Hadj Slimen M, Manunta A, et al. Management of major blunt renal lacerations: is a nonoperative approach indicated? Eur Urol. 2001;40(4):409?414. (Prospective study; 64 patients)
22. Traub KB, Hua V, Broman S, et al. Introduction of a genitourinary trauma database for use as a multi-institutional urologic trauma registry. J Trauma. 2001;51(2):336?339. (Review)
23. * Santucci RA, Wessells H, Bartsch G, et al. Evaluation and management of renal injuries: consensus statement of the renal trauma subcommittee. BJU Int. 2004;93(7):937?954. (Review)
24. Moore EE, Shackford SR, Pachter HL, et al. Organ injury scaling: spleen, liver, and kidney. J Trauma 1989;29(12):1664?1666. (Review)
25. Landau A, van As AB, Numanoglu AJ, Millar AJ, Rode H. Liver injuries in children: the role of selective non-operative management. Injury 2006; 37(1): 66-71. (Retrospective review; 311 patients)
26. Federle MP. Renal trauma. In: Pollack HM, McClennan BL, editors. Clinical urography, vol 2. 2nd edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 2000. pp. 1772?1784. (Textbook chapter)
27. Heyns CF. Renal trauma: indications for imaging and surgical exploration. BJU Int 2004;93(8):1165?1170. (Review)
28. Cass AS, Susset J, Khan A, et al. Renal pedicle injury in the multiple injured patient. J Urol. 1979;122(6):728?730.
29. Kau E, Patel R, Fiske J, et al. Isolated renal vein thrombosis after blunt trauma. Urology. 2004;64(4):807?808. (Case report)
30. Lang EK, Glorioso L 3rd. Management of urinomas by percutaneous drainage procedures. Radiol Clin North Am. 1986;24(4):551?559. (Review)
31. Elliott SP, McAninch JW. Ureteral injuries from external violence: the 25-year experience at San Francisco General Hospital. J Urol 2003;170:1213?1216. (Retrospective; 36 patients)
32. Hochberg E, Stone NN. Bladder rupture associated with pelvic fracture due to blunt trauma. Urology. 1993;41:531?533. (Retrospective; 103 patients)
33. Glass RE, Flynn JT, King JB, et al. Urethral injury and fractured pelvis. Br J Urol. 1978;50:578?582.
34. Cass AS, Gleich P, Smith C. Simultaneous bladder and prostatomembranous urethral rupture from external trauma. J Urol. 1984;132:907?908. (Retrospective; 47 patients)
35. Miles BJ, Po?enberger RJ, Farah RN, et al. Management of penile gunshot wounds. Urology. 1990; 36:318?321. (Retrospective; 10 patients)
36. Cline KJ, Mata JA, Venable DD, et al. Penetrating trauma to the male external genitalia. J Trauma. 1998;44:492?494. (Retrospective; 40 patients)
37. Kellogg NK, and the American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect: Clinical Report: The evaluation of sexual abuse in children. Pediatrics. 2005;116:506.
38. * Heger A, Ticson L, Velasquez O. Children referred for possible sexual abuse: medical findings in 2384 children. Child Abuse Negl. 2002;26:RR-2645-2659. (Prospective; 2384 patients)
39. * Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines 2002. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2002;51:69-73.
40. * American Academy of Pediatrics. Sexually transmitted diseases. In: Pickering LK (ed). Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics Publishing; 2003:159-167. (Textbook chapter)
41. * American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. Guidelines for the evaluation of sexual abuse in children. Pediatrics. 2005;116:506-512.
42. Scheidler MG, Shultz BL, Schall L, et al. Mechanisms of blunt perineal injury in female pediatric patients. J Pediatr Surg. 2000;35:1317-1319. (Retrospective; 358 patients)
43. Holland AJ, Cohen RC, McKertich KM, et al. Urethral trauma in children. Pediatr Surg Int 2001;17:58-61. (Retrospective; 9 patients)
44. Bernard D, Peters M, Makoroff K: The evaluation of suspected pediatric sexual abuse. Clin Pediat Emerg Med. 2006;7:161- 169. (Review)
45. Dowd MD, Fitzmaurice L, Knapp JF, et al. The interpretation of urogenital findings in children with straddle injuries. J Pediatr Surg. 1994;29:7-10. (Retrospective; 100 patients)
46. Chart H, et al. Serologic identification of Escherichia coli 0157:H7 infection in hemolytic uremic syndrome. Lancet. 1991;337:138. (Retrospective; 60 patients)
47. Miller K, Kim Y. Hemolytic uremic syndrome. In: Barratt T, Vernier R, eds. Pediatric Nephrology. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1987. (Textbook chapter)
48. Levin M, Walters M, Barratt T: Hemolytic uremic syndrome, Adv Pediatr Infect Dis. 1989;4:51. (Review)
49. Salmon R, Baum M. Hemolytic uremic syndrome. In: Levin D, Morriss F, eds. Essentials of Pediatric Intensive Care, St Louis: Quality Medical Publishing; 1990. (Textbook chapter)
50. Siegler R: Management of hemolytic-uremic syndrome, J Pediatr. 1988;112:1014. (Review)
51. Hurley RM, Drummon KN. Anaphylactoid purpura nephritis: clinicopathological correlations. J Pediatr. 1972;81:904.
52. Garza AG, Algren DA, Gratton MC, et al. Populations at risk for intubation nonattempt and failure in the prehospital setting. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2005;9:163?166. (Retrospective; 2669 patients)
53. Ehrlich PF, Seidman PS, Atallah O, et al. Endotracheal intubations in rural pediatric trauma patients. J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39:1376?1380. (Review)
54. Poltavski D, Muus K. Factors associated with incidence of inappropriate ambulance transport in rural areas in cases of moderate to severe head injury in children. J Rural Health. 2005;21:272?277. (Retrospective; 156 patients)
55. American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma. Abdominal trauma. In: Advanced Trauma Life Support for Doctors. 7th ed. (Textbook)
56. Eubanks JW III, Meier D, Hicks B, Joglar J, Guzzetta PC. Significance of "blush" on computed tomography scan in children with liver injury. J Pediatr Surg. 2003;38(3):363-366. (Retrospective review; 105 patients)
57. Hulka F, Mullins RJ, Leonardo V, Harrison MW, Silberberg P. Significance of peritoneal fluid as an isolated finding on abdominal computed tomographic scans in pediatric trauma patients. J Trauma. 1998;44(6):1069-1072. (Retrospective review; 259 patients)
58. Cass AS. Renovascular injuries from external trauma. Diagnosis, treatment, and outcome. Urol Clin North Am. 1989;16(2):213?120. (Review)
59. Kawashima A, Sandler CM, Corl FM, et al. Imaging of renal trauma: a comprehensive review. Radiographics. 2001;21(3):557?574. (Review)
60. Mee SL, McAninch JW. Indications for radiographic assessment in suspected renal trauma. Urol Clin North Am. 1989;16(2):187-192. (Review)
61. Smith EM, Elder JS, Spirnak JP. Major blunt renal trauma in the pediatric population: is a nonoperative approach indicated? J Urol. 1993;149(3):546-548. (Retrospective review; 22 patients)
62. Namias N, McKenney MG, Martin LC. Utility of admission chemistry and coagulation profiles in trauma patients: a reappraisal of traditional practice. J Trauma. 1996;41(1):21-25. (Prospective; 772 patients)
63. * Rodgers M, Nixon J, Hempel S, et al. Diagnostic tests and algorithms used in the investigation of haematuria: systematic reviews and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2006;10(18):1?276. (Systematic review)
64. Feldstein MS, Hentz JG, Gillett MD, et al. Should the upper tracts be imaged for microscopic hematuria? BJU Int. 2005;96:612?617. (Retrospective; 278 patients)
65. Bryant MS, Tepas JJ, Talbert JL, et al. Impact of emergency room laboratory studies on the ultimate triage and disposition of the injured child. Am Surg 1988;54(4):209-211. (Retrospective review; 626 lab tests)
66. Morey AF, Bruce JE, McAninch JW. Efficacy of radiographic imaging in pediatric blunt renal trauma. J Urol. 1996;156(6):2014-2018. (Retrospective review; 180 patients)
67. McGahan JP, Rose J, Coates TL, et al. Use of ultrasonography in the patient with acute abdominal trauma. J Ultrasound Med. 1997;16:653?662.
68. * Perry MJ, Porte ME, Urwin GH. Limitations of ultrasound evaluation in acute closed renal trauma. J Roy Coll Surg [Edinb]. 1997;42:420?422. (Prospective; 500 patients)
69. Perez-Brayfield MR, Keane TE, Krishnan A, et al. Gunshot wounds to the ureter: a 40-year experience at Grady Memorial Hospital. J Urol. 2001;166:119?121. (Retrospective; 118 patients)
70. Brown SL, Elder JS, Spirnak JP. Are pediatric patients more susceptible to major renal injury from blunt trauma? A comparative study. J Urol. 1998;160:138?140. (Retrospective; 69 patients)
71. Cass AS. The multiple injured patient with bladder trauma. J Trauma. 1984;24:731?734. (Retrospective; 417 patients)
72. Carroll PR, McAninch JW. Major bladder trauma: mechanisms of injury and a unified method of diagnosis and repair. J Urol. 1984;132:254?257. (Retrospective; 51 patients)
73. Koga S, Saito Y, Arakaki Y, et al. Sonography in fracture of the penis. Br J Urol. 1993;72:228?229. (Retrospective; 7 patients)
74. Karadeniz T, Topsakal M, Ariman A, et al. Penile fracture: differential diagnosis, management and outcome. Br J Urol. 1996;77:279?281. (Prospective; 21 patients)
75. Jankowski JT, Spirnak JP: Current recommendations for imaging in the management of urologic traumas. Urol Clin North Am. 2006;33:365-376. (Review)
76. Fergany AF, Angermeier KW, Montague DK. Review of Cleveland Clinic experience with penile fracture. Urology. 1999;54:352?355.
77. Jugenburg M, Haddock G, Freeman MH, Ford-Jones L, Ein SH. The morbidity and mortality of pediatric splenectomy: does prophylaxis make a difference? J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34(7):1064-1067. (Retrospective review; 264 patients)
78. Nance ML, Lutz N, Carr MC, Stafford PW. Blunt renal injuries in children can be managed nonoperatively: outcome in a consecutive series of patients. J Trauma. 2004;57(3):474-478. (Retrospective review; 101 patients)
79. Margenthaler JA, Weber TR, Keller MS. Blunt renal trauma in children: experience with conservative management at a pediatric trauma center. J Trauma. 2002;52(2):928-932. (Retrospective review; 55 patients)
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81. Peters PC: Intraperitoneal rupture of the bladder. Urol Clin North Am. 1989;16:279-282.